Pitman's Commercial Spanish Grammar (2nd ed.)
Date: 2005-02-21T00:00:00+00:00
Keywords: Spanish language -- Grammar; Commercial correspondence; Spanish; Spanish language -- Textbooks for foreign speakers -- English

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Title: Pitman's Commercial Spanish Grammar (2nd ed.)

Author: C. A. Toledano

Release date: February 21, 2005 [eBook #15127]
Most recently updated: December 14, 2020

Language: English, Spanish

Credits: Produced by Curtis Weyant, Chuck Greif and the PG Online Distributed Proofreading Team

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PITMAN'S COMMERCIAL SPANISH GRAMMAR

BY

C. A. TOLEDANO

1917

PREFACE

With the best intention of justifying Messrs. PITMAN'S confidence in entrusting me with the compilation of a Spanish Grammar to form part of the series of "Commercial Grammars," I set to work to produce a book which, while avoiding pedantry and the agglomeration of superfluous and intricate rules which puzzle the student, should equally avoid falling into the extreme of coarseness which debases the subject under study, or the scrappiness resulting in gaps that perplex and discourage him. I have tried to be brief and clear in the rules given.

The vocabulary has been chosen carefully, avoiding the artificiality of too much commercial technology, but keeping constantly in view the object of the Series, viz., to produce grammars specially suitable for students preparing for a commercial career.

Whether I have succeeded in my efforts it is for the public to judge. I can only say that, after more than twenty-five years' teaching of
Spanish in all its stages, privately, at the Manchester University and in the large classes of our public Institutions, I have tried my best to give the fruits of my experience to any interested young people who may be eager to learn a language beautiful, noble, and most useful.

I do not claim to have reached perfection. I only trust the book, such as it presents itself, will be of real help to the student.

C.A. TOLEDANO.

MANCHESTER, 1911.

COMMERCIAL SPANISH GRAMMAR

ALPHABET.

A (a) G (ge) M (eme) Rr (erre)
B (be) H (hache) N (ene) S (ese)
C (ce) I (i) Ñ (eñe) T (te)
Ch (che) J (jota) O (o) U (u)
D (de) K (ka) P (pe) V (ve)
E (e) L (ele) Q (cu) X (equis)
F (efe) Ll (elle) R (ere) Y (y griega or ye)
Z (zeta)

K (ka) and W (doble ve) are only found in foreign words used in Spanish.

PRONUNCIATION OF VOWELS.

a as English a in f_a_ther e[1] " a " f_a_te[2] i " i " magaz_i_ne o[1] " o " n_o_te[2] u " u " r_u_le

These five sounds never vary, except that they are a little longer when they are stressed and shorter when they are not, as Yo amo (I love),[3] Amigo (friend), El cielo (heaven), Celeste (heavenly), Un recibo (a receipt), Interés (interest), Yo como (I eat), Contar (to count), Un buque (a ship), Una butaca (an armchair).

Y is considered a vowel in the conjunction y (and), and at the end of a word, as Rey (king), Hoy (to-day).

[Footnote 1: E and o are sounded a little more open when they form a diphthong with i and when they precede r followed by a consonant or r or l final, as Fernando (Ferdinand), Un tercio (a third), El tercer año (the third year), Porfiar (to insist), Amor (love), Español
(Spanish).]

[Footnote 2: The a and o of "fate" and "note" are not pure vowel sounds. In English the a is distinctly pronounced a-ee and o is pronounced o-oo.

In Spanish the first part only of the two sounds is permissible.]

[Footnote 3: The examples given with their English equivalents should be learnt.

DIPHTHONGS AND TRIPHTHONGS.

There are no Diphthongs or Triphthongs in the English sense of two or three vowels meeting in one syllable and blending into a different sound, as "pause," "plough."

Every vowel is pronounced separately and each with its alphabetical sound, only the two or three vowels occurring in one syllable are pronounced rapidly, as Pausa (pause), Reino (kingdom), Cuenta (account),
Buey (ox).

A, E and O never form diphthongs together. They may form diphthongs and triphthongs only in combination with I and U.

CONSONANTS.

The Consonants are pronounced as in English with the following exceptions:

B is pronounced much more lightly than in English, with no pressure of the lips, as Libro (book), Brevedad (brevity).

C before E and I—th in "theatre," as La Cena (the supper), La
Cerveza (the beer). Otherwise pronounced K as in English, as Caja
(case, box), Color (colour), Cúbico (cubic).

Ch always as ch in "church" (never hard as in "monarch"), as
Chocolate (chocolate), Charla (prattle).

D at the end of a word or after a vowel is pronounced very softly and lightly, with a tinge of th in "they," as Madrid, Amado (loved),
Encarnado (red).

G before E and I is pronounced guttural, as El general (the general), El giro (the draft, bill). This sound is equal to ch in the
Scotch word "loch." In all other cases G is pronounced hard, as in the
English word "gay"; as Gato (cat), Gobierno (government), Gusto
(pleasure, taste).

H is a mute letter. (Although in Andalusia it is aspirated in certain words.)

J is always guttural, as Juan (John), Jornalero (day labourer), Junio
(June), Reloj (watch, clock).

Ll—ly, stronger than li in "pavilion," as Belleza (beauty), Folleto
(leaflet).

Ñ—ny, stronger than ni in "pinion," as Niño (child), Caña (cane), El otoño (autumn).

Q is only used before ue and ui (and the u is then mute), as
Querido (dear, beloved), Yo quiero (I want).

R as in English, but it is always rolled, as Caro (dear, expensive),
Pérdida (loss). At the beginning of a word or when preceded by a consonant it is rolled more strongly, as La rosa (the rose), Deshonra
(dishonour).

Rr always rolled strongly, as Carro (cart), El ferrocarril (the railway).

S always pronounced as s in "soap," and never as in "as" or "sure."

T as in "tea," but never as t in "nation." It must be pronounced softly, not explosive, as Fortuna (fortune), Cuatro (four).

V is pronounced much more lightly than in English, as Vino (wine), Vivir
(to live). By the common people V is often confounded with B, but educated Spaniards will always make the proper distinction.

Y—Spanish I.

Z—th in "theatre," as Zarazas (cotton prints), Zorra (fox).

NOTE.—In modern Spanish Z is not used before E or I, its place being supplied by C.

RULES ON PRONUNCIATION.

RULE I.—Every letter is pronounced. There are no mute letters as b in
"lamb" or n in "autumn."

EXCEPTIONS—H is not sounded as already explained in the alphabet. U is not sounded in the following syllables: que, qui, gue and gui, as
Quedar (to remain), Quinta (villa), Guerra (war), Águila (eagle), unless the u in gue and gui has the diaeresis, as Argüir (to argue),
Vergüenza (shame).

RULE II.—No consonant is doubled except C and N. C is found doubled in words like Acceder (to accede) when one C is hard—k and the other soft—th.

N is found doubled in words having the prefix in, as Innoble
(ignoble), Innavegable (unnavigable). Also in Perenne (perennial) and a very few more words.

Ll and Rr are treated as single letters.

RULE III.—The stress of the voice falls on the last syllable but one in all words ending in a vowel or S or N; otherwise it falls on the last syllable, as Una factura (an invoice), Facturas (invoices), Hermano
(brother), Cartas (letters), Ellos tienen (they have), Azul (blue),
Abril (April), Labor (labour), Feliz (happy).

In diphthongs and triphthongs the stress is not on i or u, but falls on a, e or o, as Reina (queen), Gracia (grace), Igual (equal),
Cielo (heaven).

When the diphthong is formed by i and u the last one bears the stress, as Un viudo (a widower), La ciudad (the city), Luisa (Louise).

The numerous exceptions to the above rule are all marked by the written accent (´), as Facturó (he invoiced), Escribirá (he will write), Háblame
(speak to me), Inglés (English), Alemán (German), Útil (useful), Jóvenes
(young men).

The stress of the voice should fall distinctly on the proper syllable according to the above rule, and the attention of the student must be earnestly called to this very important point.

A word in the plural maintains the stress on the same syllable as in its singular, as El océano (the ocean), Océanos (oceans), Cálculo
(calculation), Cálculos (calculations), Inglés (Englishman), Ingleses
(Englishmen); except Carácter (character), Caracteres (characters),
Régimen (regime or rule), Regímenes (regimes or rules)—the latter hardly ever used in the plural.

SIGNS.

The Written Accent.

The only accent in Spanish is (´). It is used—

(1) To mark the exceptions to the Rule of Stress.

(2) To distinguish between two meanings of the same word, as El (the),
Él (he); De (of), Que él dé (that he may give); Se (3rd person reflexive pronoun, "himself," etc.), Yo sé (I know); Más (more), Mas (but).

(3) In the following words established by use, as "ó" or "ú" (or),
"é" (and), "á" (to).[4]

(4) In some words when used interrogatively, as Quién? (who?), Qué?
(what?), Cuál? (which?), Cúyo? (whose?), Dónde? (where?).

(5) On I and U when they occur together with A, E or O, the I or U not belonging to the same syllable, viz., not forming diphthong with A, E or O, as Filosofía (philosophy), El continúa (he continues).

(6) On I following U when the I does not form a diphthong, but stands as a separate syllable, as Concluído (concluded), Imbuído
(imbued).

(7) On Éste (this), Ése and Aquél (that) when these words are stressed.

[Footnote 4: According to the last edition of the Grammar of the
Spanish Academy, these words may now be written without the accent.]

Crema (Diaeresis).

The diaeresis is placed over u in "güe" and "güi" when the u is to be sounded.[5]

[Footnote 5: In poetry also to divide an ordinary diphthong into two syllables for the sake of rhythm.]

Tilde.

The tilde (~) is used on the letter N to turn it into Ñ, as Mañana
(morning) (in old Spanish spelt Mannana).

Notes of Interrogation and Exclamation.

These are used in Spanish both at the beginning and at the end of the question or exclamation, as ¿Qué quiere V.? (what do you want?),
¡Cuántos sufrimientos! (how much suffering!). Note that at the beginning they are reversed.

The other signs of punctuation are used as in English.

Capital letters are used as in English with the following exceptions—

(1) Adjectives of nationality are written with small letters, as Un libro inglés (an English book).

(2) Days of the week generally (and sometimes the months of the year)
are written with small letters.

DIVISION OF WORDS INTO SYLLABLES.

After the first syllable each succeeding one commences with a consonant, as a-for-tu-na-da-men-te (fortunately), except when a prefix occurs before a primitive word,[6] as Organizar (to organise).

[Footnote 6: A few minor exceptions will be learnt by practice.]

Des-or-ga-ni-zar (to disorganise).

When two consonants occur together one letter belongs to one syllable and the other to the next, as—

Ac-ci-den-te (accident) Pe-ren-ne (perennial) Tem-po-ral-men-te
(temporarily) In-me-dia-to (immediate)

EXCEPTION—bl, br, pl, pr, cl, cr, dr, fl, fr, gl, gr and tr are not divided, as—

A-blan-dar (to soften)
Li-bro (book)
A-pla-zar (to postpone)
A-pre-ciar (to appreciate)
De-cla-mar (to declaim)
De-cre-tar (to decree)
A-me-dren-tar (to frighten)
Con-fla-gra-ción (conflagration)
Re-fren-dar (to countersign)
A-glo-me-rar (to agglomerate)
A-gran-dar (to enlarge)
En-con-trar (to meet)

If any of these combinations occur together with a third consonant, this of course will belong to the previous syllable, as

Em-bro-llar (to entangle).

If four consonants come together, two belong to the first syllable and two to the next, as Obs-tru-ir (to obstruct).

Ll and Rr, being treated as single letters, must not be divided, as—

Ba-lle-na (whale)
Una ca-lle (a street)
A-lla-nar (to level)
Tie-rra (earth)

LESSON I.

THE ARTICLE.

The =Definite Article= in Spanish is

=El= before a masculine[7] noun singular
=La= " feminine[7] " "

[Footnote 7: Spanish nouns are all masculine or feminine. There are no neuter nouns.]

as—

El hombre (the man)—La mujer (the woman)
El libro (the book)—La pluma (the pen)

El recibo (the receipt)—La cuenta (the account)

=Los= before a masculine noun plural
=Las= " feminine " "

as—

Los muchachos (the boys)—Las señoras (the ladies)
Los géneros (the goods)—Las facturas (the invoices)
Los lápices (the pencils)—Las cartas (the letters).

The =Indefinite Article= is—

=Un= before a masculine noun singular
=Una= " feminine " "

as—

Un amigo (a friend)—Una amiga (a lady-friend)
Un padre (a father)—Una madre (a mother)

The Indefinite Article has no plural, but the Spanish plural forms
"unos" (masc.) and "unas" (fem.) translate the English words "some" or
"any," as Unos hermanos (some brothers), Unas hermanas (some sisters),
Unos tinteros (some inkstands), Unas mesas (some tables). (The Spanish words "Algunos," "Algunas," are also used for the same purpose.)

NOTE 1.—Before a feminine noun singular commencing with a or ha use =El= and =Un= instead of La and Una if such nouns are stressed on the first syllable, as El águila (the eagle), El agua (the water),
El alma (the soul). (The plural is regular, as Las águilas (the eagles).)

NOTE 2.—The Definite Article has a "neuter form" which is =Lo=. It cannot be used before a noun but before other parts of speech used to represent an abstract idea, as Yo amo lo bello (I love the beautiful, viz., all that which is beautiful), Lo sublime (the sublime, viz., all that which is sublime).

REGULAR VERBS.

1st Conjugation. Hablar (to speak). Pres. Part. Hablando (speaking). Past Part. Hablado (spoken).

Present Tense, Indicative Mood.

Yo hablo (I speak) Nosotros (m.) hablamos (we speak)
Nosotras (f.) hablamos (we speak)

Tú hablas[8] (thou speakest) Vosotros (m.) habláis (you speak)
Vosotras (f.) habláis (you speak)

Él or Ella habla (he or she speaks) Ellos (m.) hablan (they speak)
Ellas (f.) hablan (they speak)
Usted habla (you speak)[9]. Ustedes hablan (you speak).[9]

[Footnote 8: The second person is only used in the familiar style, practically when in English the 2nd person would be addressed as "John"
or "Frank" and not as "Mr. Smith" or "Mr. Brown."]

[Footnote 9: This is called the polite way of addressing and is the form in use. Note that the verb after it is in the 3rd person, because "Usted," "Ustedes" (which can be abbreviated as V. Vs.) are contractions of Vuestra merced (your grace), Vuestras mercedes (your graces). V. ama = your grace loves.]

2nd Conjugation. Temer (to fear). Pres. Part. Temiendo. Past Part. Temido.

Pres. Tense, Indic. Mood.

Yo temo Nosotros (m.) temenos
Nosotras (f.) temenos

Tú temes Vosotros (m.) teméis
Vosotras (f.) teméis

Él teme Ellos (m.) temen
Ella teme Ellas (f.) temen

V. teme Vs. temen

3rd Conjugation. Partir (to depart, to set out). Pres. Part. Partiendo. Past Part. Partido.

Pres. Tense, Indic. Mood.

Yo parto Nosotros (m.) partimos
Nosotras (f.) partimos

Tú partes Vosotros (m.) partís
Vosotras (f.) partís

Él parte Ellos (m.) parten
Ella parte Ellas (f.) parten

V. parte Vs. parten

VOCABULARY.

=á=, to, at
=amar=[10], to love
=el árbol=, the tree
=las botas=, the boots
=el capitán=, the captain
=la camisa=, the shirt
=la casaca=[11], the coat
=comprar=, to buy
=la flor=, the flower
=el hombre=, the man
=el hermano=, the brother
=la hermana=, the sister
=el joven=, the young man
=la joven=, the young woman
=el lápiz=, the pencil
=el libro=, the book
=la madre=, the mother
=mas=, but
=más=, more
=la mujer=, the woman
=nosotros tenemos=, we have
=el oro=, gold
=el padre=, the father
=los pantalones=, the trousers
=el papel=, the paper
=para=, for
=la plata=, silver
=la pluma=, the pen
=el sombrero=, the hat
=él tiene=, he has
=V. tiene=, you (sing.) have
=Vs. tienen=, you (pl.) have
=la tinta=, the ink
=el tintero=, the inkstand
=*tener=,[10] to have, to possess
=yo tengo=, I have
=el viejo=, the old man
=la vieja=, the old woman
=la virtud=, virtue

[Footnote 10: The verbs given in this vocabulary and the following are regular (i.e., they are conjugated respectively as the model verbs given) unless they are marked with an asterisk.]

[Footnote 11: Or americana, more used now.]

EXERCISE 1 (1).

Translate into English—

1. El hombre tiene una pluma.

2. La mujer tiene un libro.

3. ¿Tiene el padre un sombrero?

4. Nosotros tenemos el tintero del (of the) joven.

5. V. tiene el papel y (and) el lápiz de la madre.

6. Vs. tienen la tinta y el papel.

7. Las hermanas aman.

8. El oro y la plata son preciosos (are precious) mas la virtud es (is)
más preciosa.

9. La vieja y la joven compran flores (flowers).

10. V. vende sombreros.

11. Vs. tienen las cartas.

12. ¿Compra[12] V. los pantalones?

13. El Señor (Mr.) Brown es hermano de Juan (John).

14. El sombrero, la americana, y las botas son míos (mine).

15. ¿Habla V.?

16. ¿Teme ella?

17. Ellos parten.

18. V. parte.

19. Nosotros compramos géneros (goods) y vendemos flores.

[Footnote 12: The auxiliary "Do" and "Did," used in English in interrogative and negative sentences, are not translated in Spanish.]

EXERCISE 2 (2).

Translate into Spanish—

1. The father, the mother, and the brother.

2. A pencil, a pen, and an inkstand.

3. The old man and the old woman.

4. A hat and some boots.

5. The shirt and the trousers.

6. I buy the tree.

7. He sells some flowers (flores).

8. I fear.

9. He fears.

10. We sell.

11. We set out.

12. You (sing.) set out.

13. I buy.

14. He sells.

15. The brother and the sister sell.

16. They speak to the (al) man.

17. We set out for London (Londres).

18. The old woman has the hat.

19. The old man has the flower.

20. Who (quién) has the ink and a pen?

21. The father has the coat.

22. Gold is precious (es precioso) but virtue is more precious
(preciosa).

23. I sell paper to the woman.

24. You (sing.) fear.

25. You (plu.) buy some flowers.

26. She speaks to the sister.

27. The father and the mother of the captain.

LESSON II.
(Lección segunda.)

THE ARTICLE (contd.).

The definite article El is contracted with the preposition de (of or from) into =Del= and with the preposition A, into al as—

Del extranjero: Of or from the foreigner.
Al caballero español: To the Spanish gentleman.

These are the only contractions that occur in Spanish; with the other prepositions the article simply follows, as—

By, for, with, in, on, without, behind, the father:
Por, Para, Con, En, Sobre, Sin, Tras, el padre.

The following are the principal cases in which the definite article is used in Spanish and not in English—

1. Before nouns taken in a general sense, as—

El oro y la plata: Gold and silver.
Los hombres ó las mujeres: Men or women.

2. Before titles denoting dignity and profession,[13] as—

El Señor Fulano: Mr. So-and-So.
El Rey Jorge V.: King George V.
El Profesor Rosales: Professor Rosales.

The only exception is "Don" (Mr.), only used before Christian names, as
Don Francisco (Mr. Francis).

3. Generally before each of several nouns following each other when they are material possessions, as—

La casa y el jardín de mi hijo: My son's[14] house and garden.
Las puertas y las ventanas de mi casa: The doors and windows of my house.

But—

La diligencia, devoción, y virtud de mi primo: the diligence, devotion and virtue of my cousin.

4. Before a proper noun qualified by an adjective, as—

El valiente Juan: Brave John.[15]

The following are the principal cases in which the indefinite article is used in English and not in Spanish—

1. Before a noun following the verb "to be," or other similar verbs, as—

Es capitán[16]: He is a captain.
Soy francés: I am a Frenchman.
Se hizo actor: He became an actor.
Le elegimos miembro de esta sociedad: We elect him a member of this
society.
Fué elegido miembro: He was elected a member.

2. After "what" used in exclamations, as: Qué hermosa vista: What a fine view!

3. Before "hundred" and "thousand": 100—ciento, 1,000—mil.

[Footnote 13: Except when vocative, viz., calling a person or as an exclamation.]

[Footnote 14: The 's = possessive does not exist in Spanish. "My son's house" must always be translated as "the house of my son."]

[Footnote 15: Except when vocative, viz., calling a person or as an exclamation.]

[Footnote 16: Except, of course, when we particularize, as—Es un capitán que conocí en Paris: He is a captain I knew in Paris.]

Imperfect Tense,[17] Indicative Mood.

+———————————————————————————————————+
| =Hablar=. | =Temer=. | =Partir=. |
+———————————————————————————————————+
|Yo hablaba | Yo temía | Yo partía |
| (I spoke), etc. | (I feared), etc. | (I departed),etc. |
|Tú hablabas | Tú temías | Tú partías |
|Él or Ella | Él or Ella | Él or Ella |
| hablaba | temía | partía |
|Nosotros) hablábamos | Nosotros) temíamos | Nosotros) partíamos |
|Nosotras) | Nosotras) | Nosotras) |
|Vosotros) hablabais | Vosotros) temíais | Vosotros) partíais |
|Vosotras) | Vosotras) | Vosotras) |
|Ellos) hablaban | Ellos) temían | Ellos) partían |
|Ellas) | Ellas) | Ellas) |
|V. hablaba (you | V. temía (you | V. partía (you |
| (s.) spoke) | (s.) feared) | (s.) parted) |
|Vs. hablaban (you | Vs. temían (you | Vs. partían (you |
| (pl.) spoke) | (pl.) feared) | (pl.) parted) |
+———————————————————————————————————+

Past Definite,[17] Indicative Mood.

+———————————————————————————————————+
| =Hablar=. | =Temer=. | =Partir=. |
+———————————————————————————————————+
|Hablé[18] | Temí[18] | Partí[18] |
| (I spoke), etc. | (I feared), etc. | (I departed), etc.|
|Hablaste | Temiste | Partiste |
|Habló | Temió | Partió |
|Hablamos | Temimos | Partimos |
|Hablasteis | Temisteis | Partisteis |
|Hablaron | Temieron | Partieron |
| | | |
|V. habló | V. temió | V. partió |
|Vs. hablaron | Vs. temieron | Vs. partieron |
+———————————————————————————————————+

[Footnote 17: The Imperfect tense describes a past action or state in progress; the Past Definite narrates an event. Ex.: I met (past def.)]
Charles, who wore (imp.) a black hat: Encontré á Carlos quien llevaba sombrero negro.]

[Footnote 18: The Subject-Pronoun may be left understood, and is generally omitted unless special stress is laid upon it.]

VOCABULARY.

=alemán=[19], German
=beber=, to drink
=bien=, well
=café=, coffee
=cerveza=, beer
=clavel=, carnation
=cliente=, client, customer
=comer=, to eat
=escribir=[20], to write
=estudiar=, to study
=exportar=, to export
=extranjero=, foreigner
=ferretería=, ironware
=grande= (pl. =grandes=), large
=hijo=, son
=hija=, daughter
=italiano=, Italian
=jardinero=, gardener
=leer=, to read
=mañana=, morning, to-morrow
=manzana=, apple
=máquina=, machine
=mesa=, table
=mi=, my
=mucho= (m.), much
=mucha= (f.), much
=muy=, very
=pera=, pear
=pero=, but
=pobre=, poor
=¿qué?= what?
=que=, that, who, which
=rosa=, rose
=su=, his, her, their
=su … de V=., your
=té=, tea
=el … de V=., your
=vino=, wine
=violeta=, violet

[Footnote 19: Adjectives of nationality are written with small letters.]

[Footnote 20: Past Participle is "Escrito," otherwise regular.]

EXERCISE 1 (3).

Translate into English—

1. Mi hermano habla español (or castellano).

2. V. no habla francés.

3. ¿Habla bien el alemán el primo de su amigo de V. (your friend)?

4. No, Señor, el primo de mi amigo no habla bien el alemán pero habla muy bien el inglés.

5. ¿Cómo está (how is) su hermana de V.?

6. Está muy bien, gracias (thank you).

7. ¿Compra V. papel y tinta?

8. Sí, Señor, y compro lápices y plumas.

9. ¿Quién (who) compra zarazas (prints) y géneros blancos (whites)?

10. El comerciante (merchant) que vino (came) de la Habana.

11. ¿Quién vende máquinas y ferretería?

12. Nosotros exportamos máquinas muy buenas al extranjero (abroad).

13. Estos géneros son para los clientes de V. que parten mañana.

14. ¿Ha hablado V. con Don Francisco?

15. Sí, Señor, le hablé en la ciudad (in town).

16. Las rosas, los claveles y las violetas del jardinero.

17. El amor y respeto de mi hijo y de mi hija.

18. Juan es francés y yo soy inglés.

19. Le han elegido miembro de esta (this) sociedad.

20. Las hermosas rosas sobre la mesa.

21. V. tiene mil libras (£1,000) y yo tengo ciento.

EXERCISE 2 (4).

Translate into Spanish—

1. Do you speak Spanish?

2. No, but I speak Italian well.

3. Do your customers buy (any) goods?

4. They buy machines and ironware, but my correspondent in Havana buys prints in very large quantities (cantidades).

5. Who sells paper and ink?

6. The old man sells them (los vende).

7. Who writes a letter?

8. I write letters.

9. Who drinks wine?

10. I do not drink wine.

11. Do you drink beer?

12. I do not drink beer but I like (me gustan) coffee and tea.

13. Poor John is my friend.

14. What a beautiful (hermosa) rose!

15. Do your brothers study French?

16. Yes, and they study German.

17. Who studies Italian?

18. My sister-in-law studies Italian and French.

19. The merchant (comerciante) was elected a member of your society.

20. Mr. Brown is a captain.

21. John set out for America.

22. I like (me gusta) to study foreign languages (lenguas extranjeras).

LESSON III.
(Lección tercera.)

THE NOUN.

The noun in Spanish has only two genders.

=Nouns= denoting =male= beings are =Masculine=.
" " =female= " " =Feminine=.

When there is no real gender, nouns are called masculine or feminine according to their terminations.

GENERAL RULE.—All nouns that terminate in a, ión, d, also abstract nouns ending in ez, are feminine, as—

La villa: The town. La nación[21]: The nation.
La ciudad: The city or large town. La honradez: Honesty.
The other terminations are masculine.

There are many exceptions to the above rule, principally in nouns ending in E.[22]

[Footnote 21: English words ending in "tion" end in ción in Spanish.
(Note the accent.)]

[Footnote 22: Appendix I—for reference only at this stage.]

=Formation of the Plural of Nouns=.

Nouns ending in a vowel which is not stressed and also nouns ending in E bearing the stress, add =S= to form the plural.

All others add =Es=.

EXCEPTIONS—

1. Nouns ending in Z in the sing. change it into =Ces=.
2. Nouns ending in S do not change unless the last syllable is stressed.

EXAMPLES—

El amo: The master. Los amos: The masters.
El cuñado: The brother-in-law. Los cuñados: The brothers-in-law.
La cuñada: The sister-in-law. Las cuñadas: The sisters-in-law.
El yerno: The son-in-law. Los yernos: The sons-in-law.
La nuera: The daughter-in-law. Las nueras: The daughters-in-law.
El árbol: The tree. Los árboles: The trees.
El examen: The examination. Los exámenes: The examinations.
El lápiz: The pencil. Los lápices: The pencils.
El ómnibus: The omnibus. Los ómnibus: The omnibuses.
El jabalí: The boar. Los jabalíes: The boars.

3. Nouns ending in Y add =Es=, as—

El rey: The king. Los reyes: The kings.
La ley: The law. Las leyes: The laws.

4. The following add only =S= to form the plural—

Papá, Mamá, Bajá (a pasha), Sofá (sofa).[23]

[Footnote 23: Words ending in accented vowels are very few and the rule for those ending in á, ó, ú is not very strict.]

=Compound Nouns= form their plural according to sense, as—

Hijodalgo (a gentleman by birth), literally, "son of something"; Plu.,
Hijosdalgo (literally, "sons of something ").
Ferrocarril (railway), literally, "iron railroad"; Plu., Ferrocarriles
(literally, "iron railroads").

Such nouns are rare.[24]

[Footnote 24: A verb as a component part does not change, as El portabandera (the standard-bearer), Los portabanderas (the standard-bearers).]

=Haber= (to have), auxiliary.[25] =Tener= (to have, to possess).

[Footnote 25: Viz. used only before the past participle of another verb, as (Yo) he hablado (I have spoken).]

Pres. Part., Habiendo. Pres. Part., Teniendo. Past Part., Habido. Past Part., Tenido.

Pres. Tense, Indic. Mood. Pres. Tense, Indic. Mood.

He (I have), etc. Tengo (I have, I possess), etc.
Has Tienes
Ha Tiene
Hemos Tenemos
Habéis Tenéis
Han Tienen

Imperf. Tense, Indic. Mood. Imperf. Tense, Indic. Mood.

Había (I had), etc. Tenía (I had, I possessed, etc.)
Habías Tenías
Había Tenía
Habíamos Teníamos
Habíais Teníais
Habían Tenían

Past Def. Tense, Indic. Mood. Past Def. Tense, Indic. Mood.

Hube (I had), etc. Tuve (I had, I possessed), etc.
Hubiste Tuviste
Hubo Tuvo
Hubimos Tuvimos
Hubisteis Tuvisteis
Hubieron Tuvieron

VOCABULARY.

=allí=, there
=aquí=, here
=buscar=[26], to look for
=caballo=, horse
=caja=, box, case
=el capital=, the capital, money
=la capital=, the capital, town
=comprender=, to understand
=copiador=, copybook
=creer=, to believe, to think
=dependiente=, clerk
=factura=, invoice
=fardo=, bale
=Francés=, Frenchman
=girar=, to draw, (a bill of exchange)
=el idioma=, the language
=Inglés=, Englishman
=inteligencia=, intelligence
=mal=, badly
=muselina=, muslin
=nunca=, never
=país=, country
=pequeño=, little (adj.)
=poco=, little (adv. and subs.)
=el porta-ramillete= or =florero=, the flower-stand
=¿quién?= who? whom?
=seda=, silk
=socio=, partner
=solamente=, only
=sólo=, (adv.) only
=el tema=, the exercise

[Footnote 26: Changes c into qu before e; otherwise regular.]

EXERCISE 1 (5).

Translate into English—

1. ¿Comprende V. el español?

2. No, Señor, estudio el portugués y mi hermano comprende el español perfectamente (perfectly).

3. ¿Quien escribe cartas?

4. Los comerciantes escriben cartas y sus dependientes escriben las facturas y algunas cosas más.

5. Mi socio ha girado una letra (bill) desde (from) Viena (Vienna.)

6. París, Berlín, Roma, y Petrograd son las capitales de Francia,
Alemania, Italia y Rusia.

7. ¿Cómo se llaman (what are the names of) las capitales de España y
Portugal? Madrid y Lisboa.

8. ¿Ha estado (been) V. en Holanda?

9. No Señor, nunca he estado en aquel país.

10. En este tema hay palabras que no se dan (are not given) en el vocabulario.

11. ¿Cuáles (which) son? Holanda, Portugal etcétera.

12. Estas se dejan (are left) á la inteligencia de Vs.

13. ¿No creen Vs. que son muy fáciles de comprender? (to understand).

14. Sí, Señor, V. tiene razón[27] (you are right).

15. Entonces, debemos (we must) continuar la lección.

16. Muy bien.

17. Debemos leer buenos libros y hablar en el idioma que estudiamos.

[27] Lit. "you have reason."

EXERCISE 2 (6).

Translate into Spanish—

1. Do you study German?

2. We study French and Italian, but my cousin studies English.

3. Does he understand English?

4. He understands English perfectly (perfectamente), but he speaks
Spanish badly.

5. Does your sister speak Italian?

6. No, she speaks only English.

7. What does the Englishman buy?

8. He buys a horse from the (al)[28] Frenchman.

9. My cousin sold (past. def.) his horse to Peter (Pedro).

10. John looks for his book and his paper.

11. The copy book is (está) on the table.

12. Henry (Enrique) must (debe) copy some letters.

13. Who copies the letters here?

14. Peter copies them (las copia).[29]

15. Has Henry much paper?

16. Yes, he has much paper but little ink.

17. The roses and violets are in the flower-stand.

18. The merchant has received (recibido) four bales of silk handkerchiefs (pañuelo) and three cases of prints and muslins.

[Footnote 28: "To buy from" is translated by "Comprar á."]

[Footnote 29: The object pronoun precedes the verb in the indicative mood.]

LESSON IV.
(Lección cuarta.)

THE ADJECTIVE.

The Adjective in Spanish agrees with the noun it qualifies, in gender and number, as—

El periódico italiano: The Italian newspaper.
La prensa americana: The American press.

It generally follows the nouns as in the above examples, although exceptions will be found, e.g., when the adjective recalls to our mind a quality which is already known to belong to it, it generally precedes the noun, as—

He visto sus hermosas flores: I have seen his beautiful flowers.[30]
Adjectives form their plural in the same way as nouns.

[Footnote 30: His flowers are known (or supposed) to be beautiful, before we say it.]

=Formation of the Feminine of Adjectives=.

Adjectives ending in O change O into =A=, as—

El sombrero blanco: The white hat.
La casaca blanca: The white coat.

Adjectives of NATIONALITY which end in a consonant add =A= to form the feminine, as—

El sastre francés: The French tailor.
La modista francesa: The French milliner.

Adjectives ending in N add =A= for the feminine, as—

Un hombre socarrón: A sly or cunning man.
Una sonrisa socarrona: A cunning smile.

EXCEPT Joven (young), Común (common), and Ruin (base, sordid), which do not change for the feminine.

Adjectives ending in or add =A= to form the feminine, as—

Un comerciante emprendedor: An enterprising merchant.
Una casa emprendedora: An enterprising firm.

EXCEPT =Comparative= adjectives ending in or, as Mejor (better), Peor
(worse), which do not change for the feminine.

There are a very few adjectives ending in ete and ote. These change into =eta= and =ota= for the feminine.

Other adjectives do not change.

+———————————————+——————————+—————————+
| Ser[31] (to be). | Estar[32] (to be). |
+———————————————+——————————+—————————+
|Pres. Part., Siendo (being) | Pres. Part., | Estando (being) |
|Past Part., Sido (been) | Past Part., | Estado (been) |
+———————————————+——————————+—————————+
|Pres. Tense, Indic. Mood. | Pres. Tense, Indic. Mood. |
|Soy (I am), etc. Somos | Estoy (I am), etc. | Estamos |
|Eres Sois | Estás | Estáis |
|Es Son | Está | Están |
+———————————————+——————————+—————————+
|Imperf. Tense, Indic. Mood | Imperf. Tense, Indic. Mood. |
|Era (I was), etc. Éramos | Estaba (I was) etc.| Estábamos |
|Eras Erais | Estabas | Estabais |
|Era Eran | Estaba | Estaban |
+———————————————+——————————+—————————+
|_Past Def. Tense, Indic. Mood.| Past Def. Tense, Indic. Mood. |
|Fuí (I was), etc. Fuimos | Estuve (I was), etc.| Estuvimos |
|Fuiste Fuisteis | Estuviste | Estuvisteis |
|Fué Fueron | Estuvo | Estuvieron |
+———————————————+——————————-+————————-+

[Footnote 31: =Ser= is used—

(1) To form the Passive voice as, Le amo (I love him), Soy amado de él
(I am loved by him).

(2) To denote an inherent quality, viz., forming part and parcel with the subject, as Este hombre es hábil (this man is clever).]

[Footnote 32: Estar is used—

(1) To denote state in locality, viz., to be in a place, as Estoy aquí
(I am here), Manchester está en Inglaterra (Manchester is in England)

(2) To denote condition (as opposed to an inherent quality), as Este hombre está cansado (this man is tired).]

VOCABULARY.

=activo=, active
=ahora=, now
=un año=, a year
=aquel, ese= (m.), that
=aquella, esa= (f.), that
=bayeta=, baize
=célebre=, celebrated
=cima=, top
=criados=, men-servants
=criadas=, maid-servants
=el día=, the day
=ejército=, army
=encuadernado=, bound, (of books)
=escritorio=, writing-desk
=los fósforos=, the matches
=Gales=, Wales
=juventud=, youth, young age.
=el lacre=, the sealing-wax
=lectura=, reading
=limpiar=, to clean
=limpio=, clean
=mayormente=, especially
=médico=, doctor
=el monte=, the mountain
=la nieve=, the snow
=por tanto=, therefore
=puerta=, door
=siempre=, always
=sincero=, sincere
=soldado=, soldier
=terciopelo=, velvet
=vela=, candle
=ventana=, window

EXERCISE 1 (7).

Translate into English—

1. Pedro es médico.[33] Él es buen médico.

2. Era un célebre médico de la ciudad de París.

3. Juan está[34] cansado y yo estoy enfermo.

4. La lectura es útil[33] siempre y mayormente en la juventud.

5. Aquel tintero es[33] de V.

6. Este es un libro famoso[33] y está muy bien encuadernado.[34]

7. Mi hermano es soldado.[35]

8. Se ha alistado (he has enlisted) en el ejército inglés por cinco
(five) años.

9. El Monte Snowdon está[36] en Gales.

10. La ciudad del Cairo está[36] en Egipto.

11. Las cimas de algunos montes están[37] cubiertas (covered) siempre de nieve.

12. ¿Siempre?

13. Sí, siempre.

14. Estos tinteros son limpiados todos los días (every day) por los dependientes ó por las criadas.

15. Estos tinteros están limpios ahora y siempre.

16. Aquella ventana está rota (broken).

17. Mi hermano está escribiendo.

18. Es necesario.

[Footnote 33: Quality.]

[Footnote 34: A condition.]

[Footnote 35: A quality (for the time being).]

[Footnote 36: State in locality.]

[Footnote 37: A condition.]

EXERCISE 2 (8).

Translate into Spanish—

1. Who is a good clerk?

2. My brother-in-law is a good clerk but he is tired of working (de trabajar).[38]

3. The windows and doors are clean.

4. Yes, they are cleaned every (cada) morning by the servants.

5. He is speaking to his French friend.

6. He is writing a letter to his mother.

7. They are looking for some handkerchiefs.

8. Have the merchants sold the velvet and the baize?

9. Yes, they sold them (los vendieron) yesterday (ayer); also the muslin and prints.

10. Who bought them? (las compró).

11. The Germans are a very active and hard-working (trabajador) nation, and they deserve (merecen) therefore our sincere admiration.

12. Where are the sealing-wax, the candle and the matches?

13. Here they are on the writing-desk.

14. Does the clerk understand German?

15. Yes, very well.

16. My partner and I will dine at (en) the Royal Hotel (Fonda Real).

[Footnote 38: After a preposition the verb is in the infinitive mood.]

LESSON V.
(Lección quinta.)

THE ADJECTIVE (Contd.).

=COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES=.

The =positive degree= expresses the quality without any further idea of comparison, as Feliz (happy), Rico (rich).

+—————————————————+—————————————————+
| Comparative. | Superlative Relative. |
+—————————————————+—————————————————+
|Más feliz que (happier than). | El más feliz (the happiest). |
|Menos feliz que (less happy than).| El menos feliz (the least happy).|
|Tan rico como (as or so rich as). | |
+—————————————————+—————————————————+

EXAMPLES—

Mi tío es más pobre que su hermano: My uncle is poorer than his brother.
Su mujer es menos rica que él: His wife is less rich than he.
Soy tan feliz como V.: I am as happy as you.
No es tan amable como su primo: He is not so amiable as his cousin.

Superlative Absolute.

EXAMPLES—

Muy largo: Very long. Muy corto: Very short.

Another way to form the Superlative Absolute[39] is by adding =ísimo= instead of using muy. If the adjective ends in a vowel, this is elided before adding ísimo.

[Footnote 39: More rarely used and much more emphatic.]

EXAMPLES—

Estas frutas son muy maduras: These fruits are very ripe.
Estas frutas son madurísimas: These fruits are very ripe indeed.
Estos tenderos son muy ricos: These shopkeepers are very rich.
Aquellos son riquísimos: Those (others) are very rich indeed.

Before adding ísimo, adjectives ending in
ble change it into =bil=, as Amable, amabilísimo. co " " =qu=, as Rico, riquísimo. go " " =gu=, as Largo, larguísimo.

Adjectives of more than three syllables ending in ble, adjectives ending in two vowels, or in one vowel accented, should always take =muy= and not add ísimo for the Superlative Absolute.

Besides the regular forms of the Comparative and Superlative degrees, there are the following irregular forms—

Mejor (better). Óptimo (very good or best). Peor (worse). Pésimo (very bad or worst). Mayor (larger).
Máximo (very large or largest). Menor (smaller). Mínimo (very small or smallest). Superior (higher). Supremo (very high or highest). Inferior
(lower). Ínfimo (very low or lowest).

+——————————————————————————————————+
| Future Tense,[40] Indic. Mood. |
|——————————————————————————————————|
| Hablar. | Temer. | Partir |
|——————————————————————————————————|
| Hablaré | Temeré | Partiré |
| (I shall speak) | (I shall fear) | (I shall depart) |
| Hablarás | Temerás | Partirás |
| (thou wilt speak) | (thou wilt fear) | (thou wilt depart) |
| Hablará | Temerá | Partirá |
| (he/she will speak) | (he/she will fear) | (he/she will depart)|
| Hablaremos | Temeremos | Partiremos |
| (we shall speak) | (we shall fear) | (we shall depart) |
| Hablaréis | Temeréis | Partiréis |
| (you will speak) | (you will fear) | (you will depart) |
| Hablarán | Temerán | Partirán |
| (they will speak) | (they will fear) | (they will depart) |
+——————————————————————————————————+

+——————————————————————————————————+
| Conditional Mood.[40] |
|——————————————————————————————————|
| Hablar. | Temer. | Partir |
|——————————————————————————————————|
| Hablaría | Temería | Partiría |
| (I should speak) | (I should fear) | (I should depart) |
| Hablarías | Temerías | Partirías |
| (thou wouldst speak) | (thou wouldst fear) | (thou wouldst…) |
| Hablaría | Temería | Partiría |
| (he/she would speak) | (he/she would fear) | (he/she would…) |
| Hablaríamos | Temeríamos | Partiríamos |
| (we should speak) | (we should fear) | (we should depart) |
| Hablaríais | Temeríais | Partiríais |
| (you would speak) | (you would fear) | (you would depart) |
| Hablarían | Temerían | Partirían |
| (they would speak) | (they would fear) | (they would depart)|
+——————————————————————————————————+

[Footnote 40: The Future Tense Indicative Mood and the Conditional
Mood are formed from the Infinitive Mood by adding to the Infinitive the terminations: é, ás, á, emos, éis, án for the future; and ía, ías, ía, íamos, íais, ían for the conditional mood.]

VOCABULARY.

=alguno,-a=,[41] some or any (s.)
=algunos,-as=,[42] some or any (pl.)
=amarillo=, yellow
=barba, barbas=, beard
=barbilla, barba=, chin
=blanco=, white
=boca=, mouth
=cabello=, hair
=cabeza=, head
=café, castaño=, brown, (dyed)
=cepillo=, brush
=cualquiera= (s.),[43] any (affirmative)
=cualesquiera= (pl.) any (affirmative)
=dientes=, teeth
=dinero=, money
=encarnado=, red
=escoba=, broom
=estampar=, to print (calico)
=la frente=, the forehead
=lengua=, tongue
=malo=,[44] bad, wicked
=manteca=, butter
=moreno=, brown, (natural colour)
=(la) nariz=, nose
=necesitar=, to want, to need, to be in want of.
=ninguno,-a= (s.) any (after a negative)
=ningunos,-as= (pl.) any (after a negative)
=el ojo=, the eye.
=padres=,[45] parents
=percal=, calico
=queremos=, we want
*=querer=, to want, to wish to have
=ellos quieren=, they want
=yo quiero=, I want
=V. quiere=, you want
=regla=, ruler
=si=, if
=la tez=, complexion
=un poco de=,[46] a little, some, or any
=verde=, green

[Footnote 41: Before a masculine noun "Alguno" and "Ninguno" drop the o, as Algún dinero (some money). The feminine "Alguna" and "Ninguna"
never changes.]

[Footnote 42: Also unos, unas.]

[Footnote 43: "Cualquiera" generally drops the a before a noun, as
Cualquier libro (any book).]

[Footnote 44: Before a masculine noun it drops the o, as Un mal muchacho (a bad boy). The feminine is always "mala."]

[Footnote 45: The masculine plural includes the plural of both genders, as Los padres (the parents, father and mother), Los hermanos (the brothers or the brother(s) and sister(s).)]

[Footnote 46: Used for both genders, as Un poco de vino (a little wine),
Un poco de cerveza (a little beer).]

EXERCISE 1 (9).

Translate into English—

1. Los percales estampados y los blancos están todos prontos para el vapor (steamer) que partirá mañana.

2. Necesitamos bayeta verde, amarilla y encarnada.

3. Aquí tenemos una buena partida (lot) de zarazas café.

4. Hemos hablado á una Señora de tez morena, cabeza hermosa y ojos inteligentes.

5. La frente, la boca, y la nariz forman parte de la cara (face).

6. La barba ó barbilla es el remate (end) de la cara.

7. También se llama barba ó barbas el pelo (hair) que crece (grows) en ella (on it) á los hombres.

8. Tengo un poco de dinero y algunos libros.

9. Tenemos algunas cajas de pañuelos.

10. El mal muchacho no tiene ninguna gana (inclination, desire) de estudiar.

11. Ningunos padres quieren comprar malos libros para sus hijos
(children).

12. Si tiene V. algún azúcar (sugar) yo lo compraré.

13. ¿Quiere su hermano (de V.) vender algunos libros?

14. No, no quiere vender ningunos de sus libros.

15. Mi cuñado no necesita comprar libros; tiene muchísimos, algunos viejos (old), otros nuevos (new), y tres ó cuatro (three or four)
novísimos,[47] uno de ellos (of them) es bonísimo.[47]

16. Cualquier libro es útil.

[Footnote 47: Adjectives containing ie or ue change them into e and o before adding ísimo, as Nuevo, novísimo; cierto, certísimo.]

EXERCISE 2 (10).

Translate into Spanish—

1. I have some money.

2. What goods do you want (wish to have)?

3. I want some brown prints and some red calico.

4. I have no (not any) red calico, but I must buy some (debo comprar).[48]

5. Do you want to sell me any? (venderme).

6. There are (hay) many inkstands in this shop (tienda); do you want any? (quiere V. alguno? or algunos?).

7. Yes, I want some (alguno or algunos).

8. Have you any[49] bread (pan)?

9. Yes, I have some bread and cheese (tengo pan y queso).

10. Any book will be useful.

11. The teeth and the tongue are inside (dentro de) the mouth.

12. The teeth want great attention.

13. Yes, they must always be clean.

14. We want to study Spanish because it is (es) very necessary in commerce (en el comercio).

15. If you study with attention you will soon (pronto) speak and write
Spanish very well.

16. John speaks French very badly but he is studying it (lo está estudiando) with much attention.

17. Do you understand this lesson?

18. Yes, I understand this lesson well; it is not very difficult.

19. No lesson is difficult if we study with care (con cuidado).

[Footnote 48: "Some" and "any," following a verb and referring to a singular noun previously mentioned, are not to be translated.]

[Footnote 49: "Some" and "any" are generally not translated when they are not used in a partitive sense, i.e., with an idea of a limited quantity.]

LESSON VI.
(Lección sexta.)

CARDINAL NUMBERS.

Uno,[50] una 1 Cuarenta 40
Dos 2 Cuarenta y uno or Cuarentiuno 41
Tres 3 etc. etc.
Cuatro 4 Cincuenta 50
Cinco 5 Sesenta 60
Seis 6 Setenta 70
Siete 7 Ochenta 80
Ocho 8 Noventa 90
Nueve 9 Ciento[52] 100
Diez 10 Ciento y uno or Cientiuno 101
Once 11 Ciento y dos or Cientidós, 102
Doce 12 etc. etc.
Trece 13 Ciento diez 110
Catorce 14 Doscientos,-as 200
Quince 15 Trescientos,-as 300
Diez y seis or Dieciséis 16 Cuatrocientos,-as 400
Diez y siete or Diecisiete 17 Quinientos,-as 500
Diez y ocho or Dieciocho 18 Seiscientos,-as 600
Diez y nueve or Diecinueve 19 Setecientos,-as 700
Veinte 20 Ochocientos,-as 800
Veinte y uno or Veintiuno[51] 21 Novecientos,-as 900
Veinte y dos or Veintidós, 22 Mil 1,000
etc. etc. Dos mil, etc. 2,000
Treinta 30 Cien[53] mil 100,000
Treinta y uno or Treintiuno, 31 Cien mil y uno 100,001
etc. etc. Cien mil y diez 100,010
Un millón 1,000,000

[Footnote 50: When immediately preceding a noun, "uno" becomes "un"]

[Footnote 51: "Ciento" becomes "cien." ("Cien" is found instead of
"ciento," even standing alone.)]

[Footnote 52: The duplicate forms are common to all the tens.]

[Footnote 53: "Ciento" drops the to also before "mil"; and of course before "millón" (a noun).]

The conjunction "and" is always used between tens and units, as—

Veinte y una or veintiuna manzanas (21 apples).

But it is generally omitted between hundreds and tens, as—

Doscientas treinta peras (230 pears).

"Ciento" and "mil" are not preceded by "uno" except in 101,000, 201,000, etc., to avoid ambiguity, as—

Doscientos mil soldados (200,000 soldiers).
Doscientas y un mil millas (201,000 miles).

"One million inhabitants" is translated by Un millón de habitantes.
(Note.—The de cannot be omitted.)

In the case of more than one million the word "millón" must be plural—millones, as—

Cien millones de hombres (one hundred million men).

As will have been observed, besides "uno," "doscientos," "trescientos,"
etc., change the os into =as= for the feminine.

Future Tense, Indicative Mood. +————————-+————————+———————-+————————+
|Haber.[54] |Tener.[54] |Ser.[55] | Estar. |
|Habré (I shall |Tendré (I shall |Seré (I shall | Estaré (I shall|
|have, etc., |have, etc., |be, etc.) | be, etc.) |
|auxiliary, to |denoting |(See foot-note,| (See foot-note,|
|be used with |possession) |Lesson IV.) | Lesson IV.) |
|past participles)| | | |
|Habrás |Tendrás |Serás | Estarás |
|Habrá |Tendrá |Será | Estará |
|Habremos |Tendremos |Seremos | Estaremos |
|Habréis |Tendréis |Seréis | Estaréis |
|Habrán |Tendrán |Serán | Estarán |
+————————-+————————+———————-+————————+

Conditional Mood. +————————-+————————+———————-+————————+
|Habría (I |Tendría (I |Sería | Estaría |
|(I should have, | (I should have,| (I should be) | (I should be) |
| etc.) | etc.) | | |
|Habrías |Tendrías |Serías | Estarías |
|Habría |Tendría |Sería | Estaría |
|Habríamos |Tendríamos |Seríamos | Estaríamos |
|Habríais |Tendríais |Seríais | Estaríais |
|Habrían |Tendrían |Serían | Estarían |
+————————-+————————+———————-+————————+

[Footnote 54: The Future Indic. and the Cond. mood of "Haber" and
"Tener" are formed irregularly from the Infinitive mood, the e after the root Hab being dropped, and after the root Ten being changed to d.]

[Footnote 55: For reference only—
Ser (and not Estar) must be used:

(1) Before nouns; (3) When denoting possession;
(2) When used impersonally; (4) Before Feliz, Infeliz, Rico,
Pobre.]

VOCABULARY.

=acabar de=,[56] to have just
=almacén=, warehouse
=aprender=, to learn
=ayudar=, to help
=bañar=, to wet, to bathe, to water
=bicicleta=, bicycle
=certísimo=, most certain
=discípulo=, pupil
=disfrutar=, to enjoy
=él es, ella es=,[57] it is
=ello= (neuter),[57] it
=este= (m.), =esta= (f.), this
=esto= (neuter),[58] this
=estos= (m.), =estas= (f.), these
=la fecha=, the date
=la gente=, the people
=hermosamente=, beautifully
=importancia=, importance
=La India=, India
=libre=, free
=maestro=, master, teacher
=la mayor parte=, most, the majority
=el mes=, the month
=mismo=, same
=novísimo=, brand new
=otro=, other, another
=el Sena=,[59] River Seine
=el Tajo=, River Tagus
=el Támesis=, River Thames
=también=, also, too
=tienda=, shop
=ventaja=, advantage

[Footnote 56: Followed by the verb in the infinitive mood, as Acabar de escribir (to have just written).]

[Footnote 57: "It" (subject) is most generally left understood, as "It is useful" (Él, ella, or ello) es útil.]

[Footnote 58: Referring to a whole statement, as Esto or ello es justo. This or it (what you have just said) is right.]

[Footnote 59: Names of rivers are masculine because the word "río"
(river) is understood.]

EXERCISE 1 (11).

Translate into English—

1. La India es una posesión inglesa de grande importancia.

2. El Sena es un río de Francia[60] y el Támesis es un río de
Inglaterra.

3. Toledo, ciudad interesantísima de España bañada por el Tajo.

4. La mayor parte de estos Españoles comen en esta fonda.

5. Este año las tiendas están hermosamente decoradas.

6. Es certísimo que los almacenes y las tiendas de esta calle disfrutan de grandes ventajas.

7. ¿De quién es esta regla? Es mía.

8. ¿En que fecha escribió V. la carta?

9. La escribí (I wrote it) ayer.

10. Juan acaba de comprar una bicicleta novísima.

11. Yo acabo de comprar cepillos de dientes y de cabello.

12. La criada compró esta mañana una escoba.

13. Necesitamos comprar manteca pero no la compramos porque no queremos gastar dinero.

14. La mayor parte de la gente no quiere gastarlo (to spend it).

15. ¿Es bueno este vino?

16. Es muy bueno y también no es caro.

[Footnote 60: Names of countries should not take the article (the rule is not very strict, however). EXCEPTIONS: La India, El Perú, El Japón
(Japan).]

EXERCISE 2 (12).

Translate into Spanish—

1. Foreigners in England enjoy many advantages.

2. Yes, because England is a free country.

3. Englishmen also enjoy the same advantages in other free countries.

4. Does the teacher help his pupils?

5. He does (Sí, Señor), but the pupils must study and learn their lessons well and work diligently (diligentemente).[61]

6. This morning I was writing a letter when my sister spoke of the bicycle (which [62]) she wants to buy.

7. Did you sell the muslins and prints (which) you bought last year (el año pasado)?

8. The merchant has drawn a bill at three months' date for (por) the velvets (which [62]) he sold to the Spanish customer.

9. Little and good is better than much and bad.

10. John is a partner in that firm (casa).

11. It is necessary to work.

12. This is George's beautiful garden.

13. It is a large garden with many flowers, roses, carnations, violets and other plants (plantas).

14. Who is here?

15. Charles and Henry are here.

[Footnote 61: To form an adverb from an adjective add mente as you add
"ly" in English. If the adjective changes for the feminine add mente to the feminine form, as rico (m.), rica (f.)—ricamente (richly).]

[Footnote 62: Cannot be left understood in Spanish.]

LESSON VII.
(Lección séptima.)

ORDINAL NUMBERS AND FRACTIONS.

+———————————————-+——————————————-+
|Primero[63] 1st |Décimo sexto, etc. 16th|
|Segundo 2nd |Vigésimo 20th|
|Tercero 3rd |Trigésimo 30th|
|Cuarto 4th |Cuadragésimo 40th|
|Quinto 5th |Quincuagésimo 50th|
|Sexto 6th |Sexagésimo 60th|
|Séptimo (Sétimo) 7th |Septuagésimo 70th|
|Octavo 8th |Octogésimo 80th|
|Noveno (Nono) 9th |Nonagésimo 90th|
|Décimo 10th |Centésimo 100th|
|Décimo primero, Décimo |Ducentésimo 200th|
| primo, Undécimo, |Tricentésimo 300th|
| Onceno 11th |Cuadrigentésimo 400th|
|Décimo segundo, duodécimo, |Quingentésimo 500th|
| Doceno 12th |Sexcentésimo 600th|
|Décimo tercero, décimo |Septingentésimo 700th|
| tercio, Treceno 13th |Octingentésimo 800th|
|Décimo cuarto, |Novingentésimo 900th|
| catorceno 14th |Milésimo 1,000th|
|Décimo quinto, |Millonésimo 1,000,000th|
| quinceno 15th |Postrero, ultimo Last|
+———————————————-+————————-+—————-+

[Footnote 63: Ordinal adjectives agree in gender and number with the noun they accompany or for which they stand. Final o changes into a for the feminine, and the plural is formed by adding s.]

"Primero," "tercero," and "Postrero" drop the =O= before a masculine noun singular,[64] as—

El primer pedido: The first order.
El tercer lote: The third lot.
El postrer envío: The last shipment.

But—

La primera entrega (fem.): The first delivery.

[Footnote 64: Eight words in all present this peculiarity, viz., uno, alguno, ninguno, bueno, malo, primero, tercero, postrero (these last two not always).]

After "vigésimo" ordinal numbers are generally substituted by cardinal numbers, as—

La página veintidós: Page 22nd.

Dates are expressed by cardinal numbers instead of ordinal, as—

Madrid, 20 (de) Agosto (de) 1911: Madrid, 20th of August, 1911.

EXCEPTION: El primero, as—

El 1° (primero) de Septiembre (1st September).

Numbers following names of kings, etc., are ordinal up to the tenth; then generally cardinal, as—

Felipe II. (segundo): Philip II.
Alfonso XIII. (trece): Alphonso XIII.

Fractional numbers up to 1/10th are the same as ordinal numbers, except—

(Un) medio: one half.
Un tercio (not tercero): one-third.

From 1/11th upwards, fractions are formed from cardinal numbers adding to them the termination =avo=, as—

Un dieciseisavo[65]: 1/16.

Un need not be used before the fractions 1/2, 1/3 and 1/4, preceded by an integer, as—

Uno y cuarto: One and a quarter.
Cuatro y tercio: Four and a third.
La mitad: The half.
La tercera parte: The 3rd part.
La cuarta parte: The 4th part.
La duodécima parte: The 12th part.

[Footnote 65: If the cardinal number ends in a vowel, this is elided, as veinte—un veintavo (1/20th). If it ends in ce the c is changed into z as, doce—un dozavo (1/12th).]

Collective Numbers.

Un par: A pair. Una treintena: A set of 30.[66]
Una decena (half a score).[66] Una centena: A set of 100.[66]
Una docena (a dozen).[66] Un centenar: A set of 100.[66]
Una veintena: A score.[66] Un ciento: A set of 100.[66]
Un millar: A set of 1,000.[66]

[Footnote 66: Also the number approximately, as: Una treintena de libros: (about 30 books).]

Subjunctive Mood,[67] Present Tense.
+——————————-+——————————+———————————+
| =Hablar=. | =Temer=. | =Partir=. |
+——————————-+——————————+———————————+
|Que yo hable (That I |Que tema (that I may|Que parta (that I may |
| may or shall | or shall fear).| or shall depart).|
| speak). | | |
| " tu hables | " temas | " partas |
| " él hable | " tema | " parta |
| " nosotros hablemos| " temamos | " partamos |
| " vosotros habléis | " temáis | " partáis |
| " ellos hablen | " teman | " partan |
+——————————-+——————————+———————————+

[Footnote 67: This tense is formed from the first person singular of the present indicative by changing the last vowel into =e= for the 1st conjugation and into =a= for the 2nd and 3rd conjugations. These remain the ruling vowels throughout the tense.

N.B.—The Subjunctive Mood occurs only in dependent sentences when the action is not expressed in a positive manner but is doubtful or merely contingent.]

VOCABULARY.

=actual=, present
=al por mayor, por menor=, wholesale, retail
=arroz=, rice
=artículo=, article
=asociación de obreros=, trade union
=blanquear=, to bleach
=ya caigo=, I understand, I see
=colocar=, to place
=*conseguir=, to get
=consignación=, consignment
=contenido=, contents
=decadencia=, decadence
=delegado=, delegate
=demasiado=, too, too much
=difícil=, difficult
=driles labrados=, figured drills
=driles lisos=, plain drills
=entrar á reinar=, to begin to reign
=escoger, *elegir=, to choose, to select
=extraño=, strange, queer, funny
=el germen=, the germ
=grueso=, thick, stout
=hallar=, to find
=ilustrado=, enlightened
=incluyendo=, enclosing
=limitar=, to limit
=mientrastanto=, meanwhile
=*obtener=, to get
=peso=, weight
=poder=, power
=podríamos=, we should be able to, might, could
=próximo=, next
=rebaja=, abatement
=rebajar, *reducir=, reduce, to abate
=reducción=, abatement, reduction
=reunión=, meeting
=*salir=, to come, to go, out
=*salir en=, to come to
=solo= (adj.), alone
=sólo, solamente= (adv.), only
=sujeto á=, subject to
=sumar=, to add
=tocino=, bacon
=tomar=, to take
=varios=, several
=verificarse=, to take place[68]
=*verse obligado á=, to be compelled to[69]

[Footnote 68: Lit.: to verify itself.]

[Footnote 69: Lit.: to see oneself obliged.]

EXERCISE 1 (13).

Translate into English—

1. ¿Cuál envío han recibido Vs.?

2. Nos han llegado el primero y el cuarto, pero el tercer lote no ha llegado todavía.

3. El postrer hombre á entrar en la reunión fué el delegado de la asociación de obreros.

4. ¿(A) cuánto por libra cuesta este tocino?

5. Al por menor sale en seis peniques y cuarto, pero al por mayor podríamos darlo á cinco y tercio ó talvez un poquito menos, digamos
(say) cinco y cinco dieciseisavos.

6. ¿Puede V. sumar tres dozavos y siete quinzavos?

7. Sí, Señor, esto hace ciento veintinueve cientiochentavos.

8. ¡Qué fracción tan extraña!

9. Lo es en efecto pero se da (it is given)[70] sólo por ejemplo.

10. ¡Ah, ya caigo!

11. Felipe II entró á reinar en 1556. Ningún soberano (sovereign) de
Europa podía competir en poder y en Estados con él, pero ya desde ese tiempo se observan (are observed)[70] los gérmenes de la decadencia que se verificó después.

12. Alfonso XIII actual rey de España es un monarca ilustrado y constitucional.

13. La nueva España espera mucho de él.

14. El primero y el quince de cada (each) mes, la Compañía efectúa
(effects) sus pagos.

15. Hoy estamos á (to-day is) cinco de Junio de 1911.

[Footnote 70: The verb with SE is reflexive or passive: se da, it gives itself or it is given; se observan, they observe themselves or are observed.]

EXERCISE 2 (14).

Translate into Spanish—

1. I shall be compelled (me veré obligado á) to abandon this undertaking. It is too difficult.

2. We received a consignment of rice, but the price demanded (pedido),
2-15/16d. a lb., is too dear; we shall never be able (nunca podremos) to get it; a better quality (calidad), whiter and stouter, was placed at
2-29/32d. but (sólo) a few days ago (hace algunos días).

3. If you cannot sell your plain and figured drills at the figures quoted it will be necessary to abate the price.

4. I shall accept those bleached linens subject to an abatement of 5 per cent.

5. We shall consult our partners; meanwhile let us leave (dejemos)[71]
the matter in abeyance (en suspenso).

6. He has chosen several designs (diseños, dibujos) for his lot of prints, but he finds that three of them are wrong (están equivocados).

7. Some firms always give wrong (falsos, inexactos) weights in their declarations.

8. He ordered the wrong article (un … por otro).

9. You are wrong (V. se equivoca), it is the right (justo, exacto)
article.

10. This cloth is finished on the wrong side (al revés).

11. We received your favour (su atenta) of 10th instant (del corriente), enclosing copy of your previous letter 1st ult. (p°, p°.) and have taken note of its contents.

12. By next mail (mala) we shall send you all the details required (que
Vs. necesitan).

[Footnote 71: The Imperative Mood is like the Pres. Subj., except in the
2nd Person.]

LESSON VIII.
(Lección octava.)

PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

We shall divide the Personal Pronouns into Subject Pronouns and Object
Pronouns.[72]

[Footnote 72: Grammarians often give the names—
Nominative case for the Subject pronouns
Accusative " " " Direct object pronouns
Dative " " " Indirect object pronouns]

+——————————————————————————+
| Subject Pronouns. |
+—————————————+————————————-+
|Yo (I) |Nosotros,-as (we) |
|Tú (thou) |Vosotros,-as (you) |
|Él (he, or it, m.) |Ellos,-as (they) |
|Ella (she, or it, f.) |Ello (neuter), |
| |(it, referring to a |
| | whole statement) |
+—————————————+————————————-+

Instead of "Tú" or "Vosotros,-as," =V=. and =Vs=. are used in general conversation as already stated (the verb following in the 3rd person).

N.B.—These pronouns are left understood when no emphasis is required or where no ambiguity is possible, as—

(Yo) compro las telas: I buy the cloths.
(Él) gira las letras y firma las cartas: He draws the bills and signs
the letters.
(Ella) ha tenido una entrevista con su abogado: She has had an interview
with her barrister, lawyer or solicitor.

But—

Yo he comprado la partida de ferretería y quincalla y no V.: I have bought the lot of ironware and small ware and not you.

=Object Pronouns=.

These are divided into two classes—1. =Disjunctive=, viz., following a preposition—

Mí (me) Nosotros-as (us)
Tí (thee) Vosotros-as (you)
Él (him, it, m.) Ellos-as (them)
Ella (her, it, f.) Ello (neuter) (it, referring
to a whole statement)
V. (you, sing.) Vs. (you, pl.)

EXAMPLES—

Ellos hablan de mí: They speak of me.
Nosotros trabajamos para él: We work for him.
Ella confía en tí, en V.: She trusts thee, you.
V. se declara contra ellos: You declare against them.

2. =Conjunctive=, viz., direct or indirect object of verb (without a preposition).

Él me[73] ama (he loves me) Él nos ama (he loves us)
Él te ama (he loves thee) Él os ama (he loves you)
Él lo or le ama (he loves Él los ama (he loves them,
him, it, m.) m.)
Él la ama (he loves her, Él las ama (he loves them,
or it, f.) f.)

[Footnote 73: N.B.—In the conjunctive form the 1st and 2nd persons are the same for both direct and indirect objects, but the 3rd pers.
differs.]

EXAMPLES of Indirect Object—

Él me da he gives me (to me)
Él te da he gives thee (to thee)
Él le da he gives him (to him), her (to her), it (to it)
Él nos da he gives us (to us)
Él os da he gives you (to you)
Él les da he gives them (to them, m. and f.)

The direct and indirect object of verb may also be rendered by the pronoun in the Disjunctive form preceded by =á=, as—
á mí me or to me direct and indirect object á tí thee or to thee " " " "
á él him or to him, " " " "
it (m.) or " " " "
to it (m.) " " " "
á ella her or to her, " " " "
it (f.) or " " " "
to it (f.) " " " "
á nosotros-as us or to us " " " "
á vosotros-as you or to you " " " "
á ellos them or " " " "
to them (m.) " " " "
á ellas them or " " " "
to them (f.) " " " "

We have then a double form for the pronouns used as direct and indirect object of verb—one Conjunctive, the other Disjunctive.

The =Conjunctive= form is that in general use.

The =Disjunctive= form is employed when emphasis or distinctness is required. It is seldom used alone,[74] Spaniards preferring to use it as a repetition after having used the Conjunctive form, as—

Él me ama á mí: He loves me.

Él nos vende á nosotros géneros estampados y á V.
géneros de fantasía: He sells to us printed cloth and to you fancies.

Yo le quiero ver á él y no á ella: I wish to see him and not her.

Déle V. el dinero á él y los libros á ella.
Give him the money and her the books.

Dé V. el dinero á él y los libros á ella.
Give him the money and her the books.

[Footnote 74: In sentences like "Le pagarán más que á mí" (they will pay him more than me), "me pagarán" is understood after que.]

VOCABULARY.

=acero=, steel
=antes=, before—in point of time
=asunto= (not =sujeto=), the subject-matter
=Bolsa=, the Exchange
=calcular=, to calculate
=celebrarse=, to be celebrated, to take place
=compañía anónima=, limited company
=*concebir=, to conceive
=conjunción=, conjunction
=desfavorable=, unfavourable
=donde=, where
=emisión=, issue, of loans, etc.
=emplearse=, to be employed, to be used
=espalda=, shoulder (back)
=explicar= to explain
=explanar= to explain
=falta de aceptación=, non-acceptance
=falta de pago=, non-payment
=la frase=, the phrase, sentence
=ganancias y pérdidas=, profits and losses
=el gerente=, the manager
=*gobernar=, to govern
=*haber=, there to be[75]
=hay=, there is[75]
=hay=, there are
=el hecho=, the fact
=la ley=, the law
=llamar=, to call
=más adelante=, later on
=la mente=, the mind
=los negocios=, the business
=Pascua=, Easter
=posición=, position
=proyecto=, scheme, plan
=pues, entonces=, then
=regresar=, to come or go back
=*saber=, to know
=la semana pasada=, last week
=sírvase V=., please
=tenga la bondad de=, please
=tratar=, to try
=*valer=, to be worth
=valor=, courage
=*volver=, to turn, to go back, to turn back

[Footnote 75: As an impersonal verb, "haber" makes "hay" instead of "ha"
in the Pres. Indicative.]

EXERCISE 1 (15).

Translate into English—

1. ¿Usamos nunca el modo subjuntivo en una frase principal?

2. No, Señor, aunque hay quien lo diga (some who say so).

3. ¿Dónde lo empleamos pues?

4. En frases dependientes de ciertos verbos y conjunciones.

5. ¿Y cómo sabemos que después de éstos se debe emplear el verbo (must be used) en subjuntivo?

6. Porque entonces la acción del verbo es representada[76] sólo como concebida en la mente y no se habla de ella como de un hecho.

7. ¿Nos explicará V. esta regla otra vez más adelante?

8. Sí. No hago más que introducir (I only introduce) el asunto.

9. Tan pronto como (as soon as) volvemos la espalda, nuestros negocios principian á sufrir.

10. Un caballero no hace nunca nada en espalda de otro, sino que (but)
habla claro, y tiene el valor de sus opiniones.

11. ¿Cuándo regresará el gerente del Banco?

12. Estará de vuelta (he will be back) hoy en quince.

13. Debe asistir á (attend) la reunión de Directores que se celebrará en
Londres á primeros del mes que viene (at the beginning of next month).

14. El mercado de Coloniales (Colonial produce) carece de (lacks)
animación.

15. Carecemos de noticias del vapor en que van los granos (carrying the grain).

16. ¿Cómo han salido Vs. de aquella especulación en las minas de cobre
(copper mines)?

17. Hemos salido muy mal, la relación semestral (half-yearly report) de la compañía hace constar (shows) una situación muy desfavorable y no habrá dividendo este año.

18. Talvez se remedien las cosas (things) el año próximo.

19. Hay que esperarlo (let us hope so).

[Footnote 76: Or se representa.]

EXERCISE 2 (16).

Translate into Spanish—

1. We beg to confirm (confirmamos)[77] our cable (cable) of last week.

2. They calculated their profits and losses.

3. I calculate upon doing it (cuento con hacerlo) before Easter.

4. This is not calculated to produce (no se cree que esto producirá) any bad impression.

5. He called him to his house.

6. We take the liberty to call your attention to the position of your account (nos tomamos la libertad de dirigir …).

7. The creditors were called (convocados) to a meeting.

8. I was called away (tuve que ausentarme).

9. I shall call at (pasaré por) the exchange.

10. All the old issues were called in (se recogieron).

11. The "Shannon" will call at (hará escala en) Cádiz.

12. They will make a call (pedirán una cuota) of £1 per share.

13. This steel is worth much less than that.

14. It is not worth (no vale la pena de) buying.

15. This limited company is worth (posee) £50,000.

16. This scheme is worthy of study (merece ser estudiado).

17. Please protest the bill in case of non-acceptance and then again for non-payment.

18. The law of supply and demand (demanda y oferta) governs the markets of the world (mundo).

19. The deeds (las actas) were all signed by a notary (notario).

20. Kindly take due note (debida or buena nota) of our signature at foot (firma al pie).

21. All our efforts (esfuerzos) have been of no avail (en balde, en vano).

22. In vain (en balde, en vano) we tried.

[Footnote 77: Do not translate "beg" before an infinitive.

LESSON IX.
(Lección novena.)

PERSONAL PRONOUNS (contd.).

Pronouns in the Disjunctive form occupy the same position in the sentence as they do in English.

Pronouns in the Conjunctive form precede the verb, as—

Él los compró: He bought them.

Yo le mostraré á V. mi libro mayor y mi diario: I shall show you my ledger and journal or day-book.

Mi cajero les pagará lo que les debo: My cashier will pay you what I owe you.

Nos ha exhibido su libro de facturas: He showed us his invoice book.

Me cedió los valores y efectos en cartera: He made over to me his stock of securities and bills.

El corredor le vió en la agencia de los vapores: The broker saw him at the steamship agent's.

EXCEPTIONS—

1. When a sentence begins with a verb, especially if the sentence is a long one, the Conjunctive pronoun may follow the verb, except when this is in the Subjunctive Mood, as—

Bonificóle esta cantidad en cuenta corriente para no perder el cliente:
He credited him the amount in A/c current in order not to lose his customer.

N.B.—Students should not indulge in this liberty until they have acquired practice in the language. In conversation this change seldom occurs. When the change is used the Subject Pronoun is generally left understood.

2. When the verb is in the Infinitive Mood, Gerund, or Imperative
Mood,[78] the Conjunctive Pronoun must follow, and is joined to the verb to form one word: as—

Lo mejor con estos géneros es venderlos en subasta:
The best thing with these goods is to sell them by auction.

Abandonándole la ganancia acabaremos con el asunto:
By giving up the profit to him, we shall end the matter.

Refiéralos V. á los armadores: Refer them to the shipowners.

Hágannos Vs. esta bonificación: Make us this allowance.

Cárguenos en cuenta este renglón: Debit this line to our account.

Abónenle la suma que reclama: Credit him with the amount he claims.

[Footnote 78: By Imperative Mood, we mean Imperative Mood Affirmative.
In Spanish there is no imperative mood negative, its place being taken by the Present Subjunctive, as—

Háblale tú: Speak to him.
No le hables tú: Do not speak to him.]

If two Conjunctive pronouns meet, contrary to the English general rule, the pronoun which stands as indirect object precedes the pronoun standing as direct object,[79] as—

Ellos nos lo garantizan: They guarantee it to us.

If these two pronouns are both in the 3rd person, the indirect object is changed into =Se=, as—

Nosotros se lo vendimos: We sold it to him.
V. se lo mandó (á ella)[80]: You sent it to her.
Nosotros se lo aconsejamos (á ellos)[80]: We gave them that advice.
Yo se lo digo (á V.)[80]: I tell it to you.

[Footnote 79: Combinations of me and te are very rare, and then te precedes whether direct or indirect object, the context clearly showing the meaning. In such cases it is better, however, to use a disjunctive form, for the indirect object, as—

Él te da á mí: He gives thee to me.
Él me da á tí: He gives me to thee.]

[Footnote 80: Á él, á ella, á V., etc., may be added for clearness, when otherwise ambiguity might occur.]

VOCABULARY.

=administrador=, manager (of a branch house, etc.)
=arancel=, custom-house tariff
=aviso=, advice, notice
=confianza=, trust, confidence
=constantemente=, constantly
=conveniente=, convenient, suitable
=correo=, post, post office
=*dar aviso=, to inform, to give notice to leave
=*dar aviso de despedida=, to give notice of dismissal
=de moda=, fashionable
=devolver=, to give or send back
=efectuar=, to effect
=favorable=, favourable
=fijar=, to fix
=holgazán, haragán=, lazy
=honrar=, to honour
=indicar=, to indicate, to point out
=largo=, long
=noticia, noticias=, news
=*poner en condiciones=, to enable
=por=, or =de, su cuenta=, on his account
=el sobre=, the envelope
=tomar nota=, to take note, to notice
=venta=, sale

EXERCISE 1 (17).

Translate into English—

1. Me aprecia. Te necesita. Le manda. Lo cree. Nos halla. Os busca.

2. Son géneros de moda, los vende muy bien.

3. Son buenas plumas, las usamos constantemente.

4. Me escribe que te envía los sobres.

5. Le indica el medio más conveniente.

6. Nos honra con (with) su confianza.

7. Os fija sus límites.

8. Les da su cotización.

9. Creernos.

10. Mandarnos los presupuestos (estimates).

11. Venderles á crédito.

12. Dándonos sus instrucciones tan claras, nos pone en condiciones de servirle á toda su satisfacción (his entire satisfaction).

13. Dígannos Vs. (tell us) la verdad.

14. Él me lo escribió.

15. Nosotros te lo mandaremos.

16. Él nos lo explicó.

17. Yo os lo enviaré.

18. Se lo escribiremos á él.

19. Se lo explicaremos á ella.

20. Compraron los géneros y se los vendieron á ellos.

21. Vendieron las telas y se las mandaron á ellas.

22. ¿Me lo dice V. (do you say) á mí?

23. Sí, Señor, se lo digo á V. mismo (I say it to you yourself)

24. Yo mismo lo mandé.

25. V. mismo me lo ha escrito.

26. Nosotros mismos no podríamos (could not) hacerlo mejor.

27. Él me lo dió (gave) á mí, y yo se lo entregué á él.

28. Su socio es mejor que él, y él es mejor que ella.

EXERCISE 2 (18).

Translate into Spanish—

1. Did you see (vió V.) the new Custom House tariff?

2. Yes, I saw (ví) it.

3. It is more favourable to us than the old.

4. We sent it to the manager of our Liverpool branch (sucursal).

5. We sent it to him yesterday; he will return it to us after he has read it (después que lo haya leído).

6. Did you give (dió V.) it (m.) to me or to him?

7. I gave (dí) it to you, not to him.

8. Well (bien)! he says (dice) that he will not give it to me until you tell him to do so (hasta que V. se lo diga).

9. He took it with him, and we took it with us.

10. I shall take it (f.) with me.[81]

11. Take it with thee.[81]

12. It is a long letter, but it is necessary to write it to-day.

13. Writing it to-day you are in time (á tiempo) for the post.

14. Mr. So-and-So gave more money to you than to me.

15. We have taken notice of it.

16. Take due notice of the contents (del contenido) of the letter.

17. Give him notice (aviso) of the sales you effected on (por) his account.

18. There is nothing worthy of notice (no hay nada de particular) in our market to-day.

19. I gave him notice because he is very lazy.

20. This circumstance (circunstancia) must have escaped your notice
(debe habérsele pasado por alto).

21. Do not take any notice of him (no le haga V. caso).

22. I gave notice to my landlord (propietario).

[Footnote 81: See next note.]

LESSON X.
(Lección décima.)

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.

These pronouns are not, of course, used as subject of the verb. They are used as the object of the verb when this and the subject are the same.

They are the same as the other personal pronouns, as—

Conjunctive form. Disjunctive form.

myself me mí thyself te tí

EXCEPTION—
3rd person for both genders & numbers:
se sí

EXAMPLES—

Él se ama: He loves himself.

Ella se atribuye la culpa: She attributes the fault to herself.

María habla siempre de sí[82]: Mary is always talking about herself.

Nosotros nos divertimos al mismo tiempo que hacemos negocios: We enjoy ourselves at the same time as we do business.

Ellos se respetan á sí y á otros también: They respect themselves and others too.

Mismo-a,-os,-as, may be added to the disjunctive form for emphasis, as—

María habla siempre de sí misma: Mary always speaks of herself.

Ella se atribuye la culpa: She attributes the fault to herself.

Ella se atribuye la culpa á sí: She attributes the fault to herself.
(more emphatic).

Ella se atribuye la culpa á sí misma: She attributes the fault to herself (still more emphatic).

[Footnote 82: After con (with) si becomes Sigo; same change with mí and tí: conmigo, contigo, consigo, written in one word.]

The pronoun =Se= with any verb in the 3rd pers. sing. or plural may be used to form the passive voice, as—

Se ha cerrado el almacén: The warehouse has been closed.

Se han encaminado las reclamaciones á la Compañía de Seguros[83]:
The claims have been referred to the Insurance Company.

[ootnote 83: This form is preferable when the "doer" is not mentioned.]

=Se= followed by a verb in the 3rd pers. sing.[84] translates the
English "one," "people," "they" (indefinite), as the French "on" and the German "man," as—-

Se dice que habrá un alza[85] en el mercado: They say, or it is said, that there will be a rise in the market.

Se cree que no habrá Reforma Arancelaria en Inglaterra: People think, or it is thought, that there will not be Tariff Reform in England.

En la vejez se goza el fruto de una juventud laboriosa: In old age one enjoys the fruits of active youth or The fruits of active youth are enjoyed in old age.

[Footnote 84: Or we can use the 3rd pers. plur. of the verb without the pronoun.]

[Footnote 85: Or "una alza" (both used).]

As will be seen, this is really a form of the passive voice rendered by
"se," as "se goza" instead of "es gozado." But there are more typical examples, as—

Los géneros se han fabricado en Irlanda y se los ha (not han) plegado como lienzos irlandeses: The goods were made in Ireland and they folded them as Irish Linens.

A Conjunctive Reflexive Pronoun, whether direct or indirect object, always precedes any other conjunctive pronoun, as—-

Yo me lo reservo: I reserve it for myself.
Nosotros nos lo guardamos: We keep it for ourselves.
Se me dice: It is said to me (it says itself to me).
Se les venden las telas: The cloths are sold to them.
Nosotros nos le confiamos: We entrust ourselves to him.
Vosotros os les empeñasteis en £1,000: You pledged yourselves to them
for £1,000.

Subjunctive Mood, Imperfect Tense.[86]
+——————————————————————————————————+
| =Hablar=. | =Temer=. | =Partir=. |
+——————————————————————————————————+
|Que yo hablase (that |Temiese (that I |Partiese (that I might,|
| I might, should or | might, should, or | should or would |
| would speak, etc.) | would fear, etc.) | depart, etc.) |
| " tú hablases |Temieses |Partieses |
| " él hablase |Temiese |Partiese |
| " nosotros hablásemos|Temiésemos |Partiésemos |
| " vosotros hablaseis |Temieseis |Partieseis |
| " ellos hablasen |Temiesen |Partiesen |
+——————————————————————————————————+

[Footnote 86: This tense is formed from the Past Def. by changing the termination ron of the 3rd pers. pl. into se, ses, se, semos, seis sen, in all the three conjugations.]

VOCABULARY.

=en la actualidad, al momento=, at present
=á menudo=, often
=acostumbrarse=, to accustom oneself
=admitir=, to acknowledge
=aparecer=, to appear
=aplicarse=, to apply oneself
=ayuda=, help
=boletín=, form, slip, price list
=caucho seco=, dry rubber
=cebada y avena=, barley and oats
=cifras=, figures
=la compra=, the purchase
=*contar (con)=, to count, to rely on
=la costumbre=, custom
=cualquiera=, any (affirm.)
=cuidadosamente=, carefully
=declararse en quiebra=, to file one's petition in bankruptcy
=dedicarse=, to devote oneself
=dirigirse=, to address oneself
=escribirse=, to write to each other, to one another
=escuchar=, to listen to
=exacto=, exact, accurate
=firmeza=, firmness
=industria azucarera=, sugar industry
=los informes=, information
=lisonjearse=, to flatter oneself
=llamarse=, to be called
=el montaje=, the erection of machinery, etc.
=*moverse=, to be moved, driven (machinery)
=operadores=, dealers (on 'Change)
=partida=, lot (of goods)
=perfeccionar=, to perfect, improve (machinery)
=*reconocer=, to acknowledge
=recursos=, means
= respetar=, to respect
=sección=, section
=tacharse=, to censure, to blame, oneself
=tejidos=, textiles, cloths
=últimamente=, lately
=únicamente=, solely, only

EXERCISE 1 (19).

Translate into English—

1. Nos dirigimos á Vs. por informes sobre la casa cuyo (whose) nombre aparece en el boletín adjunto.

2. Se aplicaron á la industria azucarera y consiguieron buenos resultados.

3. Me he acostumbrado á este trabajo.

4. Te has dedicado al comercio.

5. Tiene mucha opinión de sí (mismo).

6. Cuenta (he relies) consigo únicamente.

7. Se debe pensar á sí y también á los otros.

8. Estos tejidos se llaman "uniones."

9. Las dos casas se escriben[87] en francés.

10. Estos tornos y estas sierras mecánicas (these lathes and sawing machines) se mueven por motor eléctrico.

11. Se los ha perfeccionado mucho últimamente.

12. ¿Se envían las máquinas en secciones?

13. Sí, Señor, y se las marca cuidadosamente para facilitar el montaje.

14. Se dice que llegaron grandes partidas de Cebada y Avena, ¿piensa V.
que influirán en los precios?

15. Así se cree.

16. Entonces resultará (or resultará pues) alguna ventaja para los consumidores (consumers).

17. No puedo tacharme de imprevidencia (want of foresight) por no haberme abastecido (supplied, stocked) á tiempo, pues (because) carecía de los recursos necesarios para hacerlo (to do so).

[Footnote 87: Reflexive Pronouns in the plural are also Reciprocal.]

EXERCISE 2 (20).

Translate into Spanish—

1. I flatter myself that you will be pleased with (le gustarán) my purchases seeing (visto) the firmness of prices at present.

2. We consider ourselves lucky (dichosos de) not to have listened to their advice (consejo).

3. He is always speaking of himself and of his business.

4. He found himself a loser (á perder).

5. They declared themselves bankrupts (they filed their petition in bankruptcy).

6. They wrote to each other often.

7. He respects himself.

8. He himself respects old customs.

9. We acknowledge we are wrong.

10. We acknowledge receipt of your favour (acusamos recibo de).

11. We shall gratefully acknowledge (agradeceremos infinito) any help you may render (preste) to our friend.

12. We hope you will be very accurate in your figures.

13. The output (producto) for the first two months of the current year was 18,668 lbs. dry rubber.

14. The bill market (los cambios) was very firm to-day but there was little doing (poco se hizo).

15. Dealers were reluctant (se mostraron contrarios) to do business in the securities.

16. Rubber shares were lifeless (muy desanimadas), but prices were maintained (se mantuvieron).

LESSON XI.
(Lección décima primera.)

POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS.

A Possessive Adjective accompanies a noun; a Possessive pronoun stands for a noun.

The =Possessive Adjectives= are—

+————————————-+——————————————+
|Mi (m. & f., sing.) |my |
|Mis (m. & f., plu.) |my |
|Tu (m. & f., sing.) |thy |
|Tus (m. & f., plu.) |thy |
|Su (m. & f., sing.) |his, her, its, one's, their,|
| | your, (polite) |
|Sus (m. & f., plu.) |his, her, its, one's, their,|
| | your, (polite) |
|Nuestro-a, os-a |our |
|Vuestro-a, os-as |your (familiar) |
+————————————-+——————————————+

EXAMPLES—

Mi embarque: My shipment.
Nuestro arreglo: Our arrangement.
Su sinceridad: His, her, or their sincerity.
Tu beneficio: Thy benefit.
Sus fondos: His funds, capital.

De él, de ella, de ellos, de V., etc., may be added for the sake of clearness, but are not needed when the sense is clear without them.[88]

In the 3rd person (but not in the 1st and 2nd) instead of "su … de él," "su … de V.," etc., we may say "el … de él," "el … de V.,"
etc.

[Footnote 88: "De V." is added also for politeness ("V." being a title in itself—your grace).]

The =Possessive Pronouns= are—

El mío, la mía, los míos, las mías (mine).
El tuyo, la tuya, los tuyos, las tuyas (thine).
El suyo, la suya, los suyos, las suyas (his, hers, theirs, yours,
polite).
El nuestro, la nuestra, los nuestros, las nuestras (ours).
El vuestro, la vuestra, los vuestros, las vuestras (yours familiar).

The Possessive Pronoun must be preceded by the definite article except when it follows the verb "to be" ("Ser") and ownership is asserted.

EXAMPLES—

Su casa es más importante que la mía: His firm is more important than mine.

V. ha acabado su trabajo, pero yo no he principiado el mío: You have finished your work, but I have not started mine.

Estos títulos y acciones son míos: These bonds and shares are mine
(viz., belong to me).[89]

[Footnote 89: If the intention is only to distinguish between one object and another the article is maintained; as, Estas son mis acciones, aquellas son las de V. (these are my shares, those are yours).]

=Possessive Adjectives Emphatic=. If any emphasis is placed on the possessive adjectives, the forms of the possessive pronouns are used, following the noun, as—

Quiero la maleta mía y no la de su amigo: I want my portmanteau, not your friend's.

"A friend of mine," "a customer of yours" will be translated "un amigo de los míos," "un cliente de los suyos," or also "un amigo mío," "un cliente suyo," without the preposition de.

The Possessive Pronoun preceded by the neuter article =lo= denotes
"property in general," as—

Lo mío (mine—that which is mine).
Lo nuestro (ours—that which belongs to us).
Lo suyo or lo propio (one's own property).
Lo ajeno (other people's property (that which belongs to others)).

In addressing a person translate "my," etc., by "mío," etc., as—

Amigo mío: My friend.
Muy Señor mío (usual introduction to a Spanish letter).

But if the noun is qualified by an adjective, both "mi" and "mío" are used ("mi" is more general), as Mi querido amigo (my dear friend).

+————————————————————————————————+
| Subjunctive Mood, Imperfect Tense (2nd Form).[90] |
+————————————+—————————+——————————+
| Hablar. | Temer. | Partir. |
+————————————+—————————+——————————+
| Que yo hablara |Temiera |Partiera Partieras |
| " tu hablaras |Temieras |Partiera |
| " el hablara |Temiera |Partiéramos |
| " nosotros habláramos|Temiéramos |Partierais |
| " vosotros hablarais |Temierais |Partieran |
| " ellos-as hablaran |Temieran | |
+————————————+—————————+——————————+

[Footnote 90: Used just the same as the 1st form; but it may also be used instead of the Conditional Mood.]

+———————————-+—————————-+——————————-+
| Subjunctive Mood, Future Tense.[91] |
+———————————-+—————————-+——————————-+
|Que yo hablare (that I |Temiere (that I |Partiere (that I |
| shall speak, etc.) | shall fear, etc.)| shall depart, etc.)|
| " tú hablares |Temieres |Partieres |
| " él hablare |Temiere |Partiere |
| " nosotros habláremos|Temiéremos |Partiéremos |
| " vosotros hablareis |Temiereis |Partiereis |
| " ellos-as hablaren |Temieren |Partieren |
+———————————-+—————————-+——————————-+

[Footnote 91: Refers to a future doubtful action; little used. Its place is generally supplied by the Present Subjunctive, and, after si (if), by the Present Indicative.]

VOCABULARY.

=*atenerse á= to adhere to
=*adherir á= to adhere to
=ajustar=, to adjust
=apresurarse á=, to hasten to.
=asegurar=, to secure
=avería=, average (damage by sea-water, etc.)
=buque=, ship
=buque de vapor=, steamer
=buque de vela=, sailing vessel
=cabida=, room, space
=codiciar=, to covet
=deber=, to owe, must
=debido á=, owing to
=dirección=, address
=encaminar=, to forward
=hierro=, iron
=mensual=, monthly
=mercado de granos=, grain market
=muestra=, sample
=petición=, request
=pormenores, detalles=, particulars, details
=por tanto=, =por eso=, therefore
=proporcionado=, =adecuado=, adequate
=puerto=, port
=relación=, report
=representante=, representative
=resto, restante=, remainder
=resultado=, result
=riesgo=, risk
(=á= or =por) saldo=, (in) settlement
=satisfecho=, satisfied
=siguiente=, following
=someter=, to submit
=(la) sucursal=, branch house
=surtido=, assortment, selection
=vigas=, beams

EXERCISE 1 (21).

Translate into English—

1. Su representante de V. me ha sometido sus (his) muestras y dentro de pocos días haré un surtido.

2. En seno (herewith) les enviamos nuestro precio corriente.

3. Sírvase V. consignar los géneros á la orden mía y no á la (orden) del
Sr. Fulano, como lo hacía V. antes.

4. Su casa y la mía están ambas (both) interesadas en esta especulación.

5. Les embarcaremos sus vigas de hierro por el próximo vapor y las
(vigas) de su sucursal de Rosario con el buque siguiente.

6. Nuestro buque de vela el "Nerón" saldrá (will leave) en breve
(shortly).

7. Queremos lo nuestro pero no codiciamos lo ajeno.

8. Nuestro catálogo contiene todos los pormenores necesarios.

9. Debemos su nombre de V. al Sr. Fulano.

10. Nos tomamos la libertad de solicitar sus apreciables órdenes.

11. Á nuestro parecer (in our opinion) su clientela de V. es mejor que la suya de él.

EXERCISE 2 (22).

Translate into Spanish—

1. We beg (tenemos el gusto de) to inform you that your order has been placed at your prices owing to the fall experienced (que tuvimos) in our market.

2. In our monthly report, which we beg to enclose, we have stated
(consignado) the present position of our grain market.

3. Please forward the enclosed letters to their address.

4. Our risk would be great and therefore we must adhere to our request of an adequate commission.

5. The average having been adjusted we now hasten to enclose our cheque for £59 16s. 9d. in settlement of your claim as per statement enclosed.

6. Trusting (en la confianza que) you will be satisfied with (con or de) this result, we are, yours faithfully (somos de Vs. attos. y
S.S.Q.B.S.M.[92]).

7. We have secured room for the remainder of your machinery in the steamer leaving (que saldrá de) our port on the 10th prox.

[Footnote 92: Atentos y seguros servidores (que besan sus manos). The words in brackets are not used in South America and some Spanish firms also omit them. Instead of q.b.s.m., Spaniards have lately adopted:
q.e.s.m. (que estrechan sus manos).]

LESSON XII.
(Lección décima segunda.)

DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS.

A demonstrative adjective accompanies a noun and a demonstrative pronoun stands for a noun.

The =Demonstrative Adjectives= are—

+———————————+————————————————————-+
|Este, esta (this). |Estos, estas[93] (these). |
|Ese, esa (that). |Esos, esas_[93]_ (those—near to the |
| | person addressed). |
|Aquel, aquella (that).|Aquellos, aquellas (those—removed |
| | from both speaker and addressee). |
+———————————+————————————————————-+

[Footnote 93: Sometimes "estotro," "estotra," "esotro," "esotra," but these and other forms are obsolete.]

The difference between Ese and Aquel is not strictly observed.
However, in cases like "this box," "that table," "that cupboard yonder,"
use ese for the nearer of the two removed from the speaker: "Esta caja," "esa mesa," "aquel armario."

The =Demonstrative Pronouns= are the same as the above, with the addition of—

Neuter form Esto, eso, aquello[94] (this, that). This has no plural and is used—

1. In reference to a whole sentence, as—

El mercado del algodón está muy abatido; esto me desanima: The cotton market is very flat; this disconcerts me.

2. In reference to something pointed at, without referring to what the thing is,[95] as—

¿Qué es eso? What is that? (thing there, whatever it may be.)

Este, ese, aquel, etc., are accented when a stress is placed on them; Éste is also used for "the latter" and Aquél for "the former."[96]

Instead of ese, etc., aquel, etc., before que and de, the definite article is generally used, as—

El aumento de precio de hoy y el[97] que tuvimos ayer: The increase in price to-day and that we had yesterday.

La remesa anterior y la que haremos hoy: The previous shipment and that we are sending to-day.

El flete del aceite y el de los vinos: The freight on oil, and that on wine.

Mis documentos y los de mi jefe: My documents and those of my chief
(employer).

Lo que (instead of "aquello que") escribo es la pura verdad: That which
(what) I write is the honest truth.

[Footnote 94: "Eso" and "aquello" are used practically indiscriminately.]

[Footnote 95: French "ceci," "cela."]

[Footnote 96: Esto es—namely, that is …]

[Footnote 97: It might appear to be an abbreviation of "aquel," but it is not] so.

A preposition may precede que, as—

¿Qué libro es ese? Es el en que escribimos ayer: What book is that? It is that in which we wrote yesterday.

¿Qué carta quiere V.? La á que me referí ayer: What letter do you want?
That to which I referred yesterday.

¿Qué plumas son estas? Son las con que yo escribía: What pens are these?
They are those with which I wrote.

Esta translates the commercial phrase, "our place," "our market."

Esa translates the commercial phrase, "your place," "your market."

As—

El mercado en esta está muy flojo: The market here is very slack.

Nos dicen los armadores que el cargamento llegará á esa el 15 del mes entrante: The shipowners inform us that the cargo will reach your town on the 15th prox.

+——————————————————————————————————-+
| Subjunctive Mood, Present Tense. |
+—————————-+————————-+———————-+———————-+
| =Haber=. | =Tener=. | =Ser=. | =Estar=. |
+—————————-+————————-+———————-+———————-+
|Que yo haya (that I|Tenga (that I |Sea (that I |Esté (that I |
| may have, etc.) | may have, etc.)| may be, etc.)| may be, etc.)|
| " tú hayas |Tengas |Seas |Estés |
| " el haya |Tenga |Sea |Esté |
| " nosotros |Tengamos |Seamos |Estemos |
| hayamos | | | |
| " vosotros |Tengáis |Seáis |Estéis |
| hayáis | | | |
| " ellos hayan |Tengan |Sean |Estén |
+—————————-+————————-+———————-+———————-+

VOCABULARY.

=á ese respecto=, in that respect
=acusar=, to accuse, to show
=al menos=, at least
=barca á motor= motor-boat
=barca automóvil= motor-boat
=carriles, rieles, railes=, rails
=competidor, contrincante=, competitor, neighbour[98]
=condiciones=, terms
=contra=, against
=deprimir=, to depress
=descarga=, discharge, the discharging
=desgracia=, misfortune
=días de estadía=, lay days
=dificultad=, difficulty
=elevar=, to raise, to enhance
=está visto=, it is obvious
=evitar=, to avoid
=fletar=, to freight
=mar alborotada=, heavy sea
=mercado algodonero=, cotton market
=mina de carbón=, colliery
=*ofrecer=, to offer
=oscilación=, uncertainty, wavering, ups and downs
=perturbar=, to disturb
=sorprendente=, surprising
=suma redonda=, lump sum
=*volcar=, to capsize, to overturn

[Footnote 98: Neighbour, person living near: vecino.]

EXERCISE 1 (23).

Translate into English—

1. Debido á la última baja que se ha verificado en este mercado, podemos ofrecerles una reducción de diez por ciento en los precios de esos géneros.

2. Está visto que el gobierno de aquella república no sólo no se ocupa de elevar el crédito sino que tiene la desgracia de deprimirlo y de perturbar el mercado bursátil (the money market).

3. Se ha repetido en ésta la oscilación que hubo en la semana pasada.

4. Los consolidados (the consolidated) han abierto á 82 y la Renta
Italiana á 101, habiendo bajado más tarde aquéllos á 81 1/2 y ésta á
100.

5. El Amortizable 5% (the 5% Redeemable) subió hasta (to) 103.

6. La revista del mercado algodonero acusa una baja en los futures y la de la Bolsa un alza en todos los valores extranjeros.

7. Esto es muy natural, aquéllo es sorprendente.

8. Yo le digo ésto: lo haré.

9. Eso me conviene.

EXERCISE 2 (24).

Translate into Spanish—

1. We shall ship these iron beams and those steel rails by a sailing vessel which we intend to (intentamos) freight at (por) a lump sum, with at least ten lay days for discharging.

2. This will avoid any (toda) difficulty in that respect.

3. A German motor-boat was making this week a trial run (excursión de prueba) in a (con la) heavy sea when she capsized (y se volcó).

4. The net profits of this year show (muestran, acusan) an increase of
£1,000.

5. The working (la explotación) of those collieries has resulted in a loss.

6. Messrs. Brown & Co. of your city (de esa) have sent their agent over
(aquí) to make considerable purchases.

7. We hastened to submit to them our best terms offering a credit of nine months against their acceptances.

8. These terms are better than those of our competitors. This is certain.

LESSON XIII.
(Lección décima tercera.)

RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

+——————+—————-+——————————————————+
| Sing. | Plu. | |
+——————+—————-+——————————————————+
|Quien |Quienes |(who, whom) |
|El cual |Los cuales |(who, whom or which) |
|La cual |Las cuales | |
|Que | |(that) |
|Cuyo |Cuyos |(whose, or of which (denoting |
|Cuya |Cuyas | possession)) |
+——————+—————-+——————————————————+

Quien is used for persons only. El cual and que are used for persons and things.

EXAMPLES—

El agente á quien (or al cual) hemos escrito: The agent to whom we have written.

¿Son aquéllas las partidas de azúcares de las cuales me habló V. ayer?
Are those the lots of sugar of which you spoke to me yesterday?

Me acuerdo de las personas y las cosas que V. ha mencionado: I remember the people and things that you mentioned.

El buque cuya tripulación ha desembarcado: The ship whose crew has landed.

El comerciante á cuyo hijo hemos conocido: The merchant whose son we have known.

Que is used very often instead of quien and el cual. Que is to be preferred when the clause following is a mere complement of the principal clause (preceding), and Quien or El cual only when the following clause is considered not less in importance than the clause preceding, viz., when it introduces _a new idea,[99] as—

¿Ha visto V. al viajante que nos visitó esta mañana?
Have you seen the traveller who called on us this morning?

He conocido al banquero quien era hombre muy juicioso y prudente: I knew the banker who was a very wise and prudent man.

[Footnote 99: This is practically saying: after a comma, only the use of the comma is so arbitrary that we preferred to explain the rule fully.]

After ser and a noun or pronoun, translate "who" by quien, as—

Es él (Carlos) quien me lo ha dicho: It is he (Charles) who told it to me.

After a preposition translate "whom" by quien (pl., quienes)[100], and "which" by el cual (la cual, etc.).

[Footnote 100: "Que" is found but rarely.]

EXCEPTION—

After á, con, de, en, we can also translate "which" equally well by que, or el que, la que, los que, las que.[101]

[Footnote 101: "Que" or "El que" is found also after other prepositions but rarely.]

"Which" relating to a whole sentence is lo cual or lo que (naturally, because a whole sentence has no gender).

Instead of cuyo we may use de quien, del cual, de que, del que, as—

El buque, la tripulación del cual, de que, or del que ha desembarcado:
The ship whose crew has landed.

El comerciante al hijo de quien, or del cual hemos conocido: The merchant whose son we have known.

"He who" is translated by aquel que, el que,[102] also quien.

"She who" is translated by aquella que, la[102] que, also quien.

"Those who" is translated by aquellos que, los[102] que, also quienes.

[Footnote 102: See Lesson XII.]

=Relative Pronouns= cannot be left out, understood, in Spanish, as—

El hombre á quien, or que ví: The man I saw.

Expressions as "The man I spoke to" must, of course, be rendered "The man to whom I spoke" (El hombre á quien hablé).

Expressions as "I recommend you Messrs. So-and-So than which no better firm exists," are rendered "Le recomiendo á V. la casa de los Srs.
Fulanos de Tal que no la hay mejor (or de la cual, or de la que no hay otra mejor)".

+——————————————————————————————————-+
| Subjunctive Mood, Imperfect Tense. |
+—————————-+———————-+———————-+————————-+
| =Haber=. | =Tener=. | =Ser=. | =Estar=. |
|Que yo hubiese |Tuviese (that I|Fuese (that I |Estuviese (that I|
| (that I might, | might, would,| might, would,| might, would, |
| would, or should| or should | or should | or should |
| have, etc.) | have, etc.) | be, etc.) | be, etc.) |
| " tú hubieses |Tuvieses |Fueses |Estuvieses |
| " él hubiese |Tuviese |Fuese |Estuviese |
| " nosotros |Tuviésemos |Fuésemos |Estuviésemos |
| hubiésemos | | | |
| " vosotros |Tuvieseis |Fueseis |Estuvieseis |
| hubieseis | | | |
| " ellos hubiesen |Tuviesen |Fuesen |Estuviesen |
+—————————-+———————-+———————-+————————-+

VOCABULARY.

=amargo=, bitter
=armador de buques=, shipowner
=arreglar=, to arrange
=el bien=, the good
=buque, barco, navio=, boat
=cauto=, cautious
=*conocer=, to know through the senses, to be acquainted with
=deuda=, debt
=doloroso=, painful
=endosar=, to endorse
=enseñar=, to teach, to show
=esperar=, to expect, to hope, to wait
=estadísticas=, statistics
=falta=, want, absence of
=flojo=, slack
=fundar=, to found
=gratitud=, gratitude
=*hacer mención=, to mention
=herida=, wound, sting
=informar (de)=, to inform of, to acquaint with
=llevar chasco=, to be disappointed, to be baffled
=*negar=, to deny
=periódico=, newspaper
=premio=, reward, prize, premium
=robar=, to rob, to steal
=simpático=, pleasant, winsome, taking
=*tener empeño=, to be earnest, anxious about anything

EXERCISE 1 (25).

Translate into English—

1. El hombre que me habló no es el á quien hemos escrito.

2. Hé aquí (here is) el libro que me enseñó esta regla.

3. He escrito al hombre que nos endosó la letra.

4. He comprado el periódico que contiene aquellas estadísticas.

5. He arreglado con el negociante quien (or el cual) parece hombre muy simpático.

6. El corredor, quien (or el cual) tiene mucho empeño en concluir la transacción, me vino á ver otra vez (again) esta mañana.

7. El capital, el cual se ha destinado á la explotación de las minas, es intangible (cannot be touched).

8. El hombre á quien (or al cual) me refiero es armador de buques.

9. El negociante de quien (or del cual) le hablaba es integérrimo
(most upright).

10. El asunto á que me refería (or de que trataba).

11. La pluma con que escribía y con la cual (or con la que) puede escribir V.

12. La mina en que (or en la cual) fundaba sus esperanzas.

13. El dinero sobre el cual contaba.

14. Los géneros para los cuales se dió (was given) la orden.

15. ¿Es él quien lo quiere y á cuyo hijo (or al hijo de quien) V.
conoce?

EXERCISE 2 (26).

Translate into Spanish—

1. He who robs you of (roba) money robs you of little, but he who denies you a debt of well-deserved gratitude robs you of more, which is obvious.

2. Those who deny this (nieguen, (subj.)) have not experienced how
(cuán) painful is the sting of ingratitude.

3. Those who do good should do it expecting ingratitude for (por) their reward, then they will not be disappointed.

4. It is a truth than which no bitterer exists.

5. The steamer I have bought is a first-class boat.

6. The little (pequeña) house I paid for.

7. The firm I made mention of enjoys good credit.

8. I wonder (me pregunto yo) if this is the engineer whose son is a lawyer.

9. Their market is very slack at present, which accounts for (explica)
the want of their remittances.

10. I acquainted them with all the facts, which made them very cautious.

11. We are acquainted with Mr. McIntyre (conocemos al), who is a
Scotchman.

12. He is only an acquaintance (un conocido or un conocimiento).

LESSON XIV.
(Lección décima cuarta.)

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES.

These are the same as the relative pronouns, only they are written with an accent—

¿Quién,-es? (who, whom?)
¿Cuál,-es? (which?)
¿Qué? (what?)
¿Cúyo,-a,-os,-as? (whose?)
¿De quién,-es[103]? (whose?)
¿Cuánto,-a,-os,-as? (how much, how many?)

[Footnote 103: "De quién" is more usual than "Cúyo" in interrogations.]

Cuál when interrogative is used without the definite article which must accompany it when it is a relative pronoun. Quién, interrogative, is never an adjective.

EXAMPLES—

¿Quién vino a verme? Who came to see me?

¿Cuál arreglo le gusta á V. más? Which arrangement do you prefer?

¿Cúyo es este lápiz? Whose is this pencil? or Whose
¿Cúyo lápiz es este? pencil is this?
¿De quién es este lápiz?

¿De quién recibió V. la consignación de madera? From whom did you receive the consignment of timber?

¿A quiénes nos refieren Vs. para informes? To whom do you refer us for information?

¿Cuánto me cobrará V.? How much will you charge me?

Cuál (which) is often used instead of the English "what", as—

¿Cuáles son sus intenciones? What are your intentions?

Qué is used in exclamatory sentences—"what a", as—

¡Qué lástima! What a pity!
¡Qué bonitos paños! What nice suitings![104]

[Footnote 104: Before an adjective without a noun following "qué"
translates the English "how":—¡Qué bonito! how nice!]

An emphatic tan or más may be inserted, thus—

¡Qué paño tan bonito! What a very nice suiting!
¡Qué hombre más rico! What a very rich man!

Cuál is used in exclamatory clauses instead of cómo (how), as—

¡Cuál le han reducido las desgracias! How (or to what a state)
misfortunes have reduced him!
¡Cuál la ví! How (or in what a state) did I see her!

Cuánto is also used in exclamations, as—

¡Cuánto le agradezco su amabilidad! How much obliged I am for your kindness!

Cual without article and without accent is used for "as," as—

Una casa (tal) cual yo la deseaba: A house (such) as I liked.

Such expressions as "He wrote me a letter, which letter I still possess," are translated "Me escribió una carta, cuya carta aun tengo."

Subjunctive Mood, Imperfect Tense (2nd form).

+———————————-+——————-+—————-+——————-+
=Haber=. | =Tener=. | =Ser=. | =Estar=. |
+———————————-+——————-+—————-+——————-+
|Que yo hubiera |Tuviera |Fuera |Estuviera |
| " tú hubieras |Tuvieras |Fueras |Estuvieras |
| " él hubiera |Tuviera |Fuera |Estuviera |
| " nosotros hubiéramos|Tuviéramos |Fuéramos |Estuviéramos |
| " vosotros hubierais |Tuvierais |Fuerais |Estuvierais |
| " ellos hubieran |Tuvieran |Fueran |Estuvieran |
+———————————-+——————-+—————-+——————-+

Subjunctive Mood, Future Tense.

+———————————-+———————+——————+———————+
|Que yo hubiere (that |Tuviere (that |Fuere (that |Estuviere |
| I shall have, | I shall have,| I shall be,| (that I shall|
| etc.) | etc.) | etc.) | be, etc.) |
| " tú hubieres |Tuvieres |Fueres |Estuvieres |
| " él hubiere |Tuviere |Fuere |Estuviere |
| " nosotros hubiéremos|Tuviéremos |Fuéremos |Estuviéremos |
| " vosotros hubiereis |Tuviereis |Fuereis |Estuviereis |
| " ellos hubieren |Tuvieren |Fueren |Estuvieren |
+———————————-+———————+——————+———————+

Imperative Mood. (This mood is used to command or beg.)

+————+————————————————-+—————————————-+
|Hablar |Habla[105](speak thou, sing.) |Hablad (speak you, plu.) |
|Temer |Teme (fear " ) |Temed (fear " ) |
|Partir |Parte (depart " ) |Partid (depart " ) |
|Haber |Hé[106] (have " ) |Habed (have " ) |
|Tener |Ten ( " " ) |Tened ( " " ) |
|Ser |Sé (be " ) |Sed (be " ) |
|Estar |Está ( " " ) |Estad ( " " ) |
+————+————————————————-+—————————————-+

[Footnote 105: The Imperative Mood has only a separate form for the 2nd pers. sing. and plu. It has no 1st pers. sing. and the 1st pers. pl. and
3rd pers. sing. and pl. are taken from the Pres. Subj.

The 2nd pers. pl. is derived from the Infinitive Mood by changing the final r into d—no exception.

The 2nd pers. sing. is the same as the 3rd pers. sing. of the Pres.
Indicative, with a few exceptions (among which are Haber, Tener, Ser).]

[Footnote 106: Given as a form only, as Haber has no Imperative Mood in modern Spanish, except in Héme, héte, héle, aquí, etc. (here I am, here thou art, here he is, etc.), and in some other rare cases.

N.B.—In Spanish there is no imperative negative, the Pres. Subj.
negative being used instead, as—

=Hablar=. No hables (do not (thou) speak).
No habléis (do not (you) speak).]

VOCABULARY.

=*acordarse=, to remember
=me acuerdo=, I remember
=se acuerda=, he remembers
=cartera=, pocket-book, portfolio
=contestar á, responder á=, to answer
=*decir=, to say
=*devolver=, to return, give back
=devuelto=, given back
=devuelvo=, I return, give back
=digo=, I say
=dice=, he says
=dije=, I said
=dijo=, he said
=disgustado=, annoyed, disgusted, displeased
=flojedad=, slackness
=*hacer escala=, to call at (steamers)
=mucho me gusta=, I am very glad
=negativa=, refusal
=notas (billetes) de banco=, bank notes
=*oir=, to hear
=*perder=, to lose
=perdiendo=, losing
=*querer=, to want, to be willing to have
=quiero=, I want, I am willing to have
=quiere=, he wants, he is willing to have
=responder=,[107] to answer
=*seguir=, to continue
=sorpresa=, surprise

[Footnote 107: "Responder"; past part., "respuesto"—otherwise regular.]

EXERCISE 1 (27).

Translate into English—

1. ¿Quién respeta las leyes?

2. ¿Cuáles leyes?

3. Las de este país. ¿Qué dice V.?

4. Lo que V. oye (you hear).

5. Estos pañuelos y zarazas son cuales V. deseaba.

6. Mucho me gusta saberlo.

7. ¡Qué hermosas telas! ¡y baratas!

8. ¡Cuánto pide V. por ellas?

9 ¿Cuántos dividendos ha pagado esa Compañía? Tres.

10. ¿Cuántos dijo V. (did you say)?

11. Tres ó cuatro, no me acuerdo exactamente.

12. ¿Cúya cartera es esta?

13. Es la cartera de mi hermano, cuya cartera, como V. habrá sabido, la perdió con £500 en notas de banco y le fué devuelta.

14. ¿De quién es el cargamento cuyo conocimiento ha llegado?

15. Es mío.

16. ¿Qué libro es este? Es el mío.

17. Ha seguido la flojedad en los valores, perdiendo mucho el amortizable.

18. Hubo pocas (few) transacciones en general.

19. ¡Cuál lo hallamos!

20. ¡Absolutamente desanimado! ¡Qué lastima!

EXERCISE 2 (28).

Translate into Spanish—

1. What reduction can you make?

2. Twopence a yard.

3. Which of the two will you have (quiere V.)?

4. What orders did you give?

5. Whose goods are these?

6. What a surprise!

7. How much money did you receive?

8. How many lots of white shirting have you placed?

9. Did you answer all his letters?

10. If we bought (si comprásemos) the (colonial) produce dearer than the figure you indicated we should have to answer for it (seríamos responsables).

11. The cotton prints and union drills we sent you will answer your requirements (corresponderán a sus necesidades).

12. Mr. Pérez seems annoyed by your refusal.

13. I am very sorry (lo siento mucho or infinito) but it is not my fault.

14. I could not accept the rebate under (en) the circumstances.

15. Has the steamer called at Málaga?

16. I believe she has (que sí).

LESSON XV.
(Lección décima quinta.)

INDEFINITE ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS.

(Those marked with an asterisk are Pronouns only.)

Alguno, *alguien (pronounced álguien), (some, somebody, anybody)
*Algo, alguna cosa (something, anything)
*Uno-a,-os-as (one, a person, some, some persons)
Uno á otro (one another, each other)
Uno ú otro (one or the other, either)
Uno y otro, ambos, entrambos (both)
Ni uno ni otro (neither the one nor the other)
Ni uno (not a single one)
Los otros, los demás (the others)
Mismo (same, self)
Cierto-a,-os-as (a certain, certain)
Cada (each)
*Cada uno, *cada cual (each, each one)
Otro (other, another[108])
Todo (all, everything, every)
Todos (everybody, all)
Poco (little)
Pocos (few)
Unos pocos, unos cuantos (a few)
Mucho-a,-os-as (much, many)
Varios (several)
Cualquiera (sing.), Cualesquiera (pl.), (any, whichever)
*Quienquiera (sing.), quienesquiera (pl.), (any, whoever, whomever)
*Cualquiera cosa (anything, whatever)
Propio-a, os-as (own, self, same)
Tal (sing.), tales (pl. such a, such)
*Fulano, zutano, mengano (So-and-So)
Cuanto (todo lo que), (all that which)
Cuantos (todos los que), (all those who)
Ninguno (no one, nobody, not any)
*Nada (nothing), *nadie (no one, nobody)
*Quien … quien, *cual … cual (some … some)

[Footnote 108: "Another" is "otro," not "un otro."]

Cada is an adjective only, as—

Cada huelga de obreros daña la industria nacional: Each workmen's strike injures national industry.

Alguien, algo, cada, nada, nadie are invariable, and the verb accompanying them is always singular, as—

Alguien hizo un error de pluma: Somebody made a slip of the pen.

Algo es mejor que el dinero, el honor: There is something better than money, honour.

¿Hay algo peor que la ingratitud? Is there anything worse than ingratitude?

Nada es absolutamente perfecto y nadie es infalible: Nothing is absolutely perfect and nobody is infallible.

Further difference in meaning between alguien and alguno—

Alguien refers to persons only, and cannot be followed by de. Alguno to persons or things, and may be followed by de,[109] as—

Alguien or Alguno se ha quejado: Somebody has complained.

Quiere naranjas y melocotones y yo tengo algunos: He wants oranges and peaches, and I have some.

Alguno de ellos lo hará: Someone amongst them will do it.

The English "any," "anything," are translated by alguno, alguna cosa
(algo) when interrogative; ninguno, ninguna cosa (nada) when negative; and cualquiera, cualquiera cosa when affirmative, as—

¿Quiere V. algún refresco ó algo que comer? Do you want any refreshments[110] or anything to eat?

No quiero ningunos Holandillos: I do not want any Hollands.

Cualquier(a) muchacho de escuela echaría de ver que estas Batistas
Victoria son más ordinarias: Any schoolboy could see that these Victoria
Lawns are of lower quality.

Alguno and Ninguno are left understood oftener than in English, as—

¿Comprará V. (algunos) títulos de la nueva emisión? Will you buy any stock of the new issue?

Él no pide consejos: He does not ask any advice.

When nadie and ninguno, or any other =negative word=, as the adverb nunca (never), etc., precede a verb, no other negative is required; but when they =follow= it, =no= (not) must precede the verb, as: No he visto á nadie or á nadie he visto: I have seen nobody.

[Footnote 109: Same difference between nadie and ninguno.]

[Footnote 110: In Spanish the singular is found instead of the plural, as: ¿Tiene V. algún libro que prestarme? (have you any books to lend me?).]

Verbs ending in car or gar change the c and g into =qu= and =gu= respectively before =e=, as—

+—————————+——————————-+——————————-+
| | =Embarcar=[111] | =Cargar=[111] |
| |(to embark, to ship) | (to load) |
| Past Def. |Embarqué |Cargué |
| Pres. Subj. |Embarque,-ques, que, |Cargue,-gues,-gue, |
| |-quemos,-quéis,-quen.|-guemos,-guéis,-guen.|
+—————————+——————————-+——————————-+

[Footnote 111: The primary parts (except, of course, the Infinitive) will be omitted in future when they are regular. The derivative parts will also be omitted when they are regularly formed from their primary parts according to the rules given. See synopsis at the end of the book.]

VOCABULARY.

=agricola=, agricultural
=amontonar=, to pile up
=apertura=, opening
=bajar=, to lower, to go or come down
=bonito=, pretty
=comarca=, region, district (of a country)
=detenidamente=, at length
=duplicar=, to double, to duplicate
=exigua=, slight, trifling
=fábricas de algodón=, cotton mills
=géneros alimenticios=, food stuffs
=*hacer caso=, to take notice
=hilador=, spinner
=impuesto=, tax
=(la) incertidumbre=, uncertainty
=industria=, industry
=legislatura=, parliamentary session
=ligero=, light (adj.), slight, small
=limitación=, curtailment
=(la) luz=, light (n.)
=*mantener=, to hold up, to maintain
=mejora=, improvement
=ministerio=, ministry
=obligaciones=, debentures
=olvidar=, to forget
=para que=, so that
=patria=, country, fatherland
=preferible=, preferable
=*prevalecer, reinar=, to prevail, to rule
=subir=, to go or come up
=tejedor=, weaver
=timbre=, stamp
=tomar la delantera á=, to take the start on.
=trigo=, wheat
=varios=, several
=vinícola=, wine (adj.)

EXERCISE 1 (29).

Translate into English—

1. Alguien pretende que se duplicará el impuesto del timbre sobre las acciones y obligaciones de las compañías anónimas y que habrá algunos que protestarán enérgicamente.

2. Algo hay de eso y uno y otro partido político se interesan de la cuestión pero ni uno de los periódicos locales echa luz sobre las intenciones del ministerio.

3. Los demás proyectos de ley con ciertas modificaciones se presentarán
(will be introduced) en esta misma legislatura, y cada uno se discutirá detenidamente.

4. Se anuncian varias empresas industriales en grande escala.

5. Cuanto se hace es poco cuando se piensa en lo que se debería hacer para que nuestros competidores no nos tomen la delantera.

6. Cualquiera echa de ver (can see) eso.

7. Cuantos hay que miran al verdadero interés de su patria deben olvidar sus propios intereses en favor del fomento de la industria vinícola y agrícola de esta comarca.

8. Cada casa tiene su sistema propio.

9. Yo no imito á Fulano, Zutano y Mengano, soy cauto y evito los riesgos.

10. Negocio papel extranjero, pero sólo letras bancarias, ó de firmas de primera clase y con dos endosos, nada más.

EXERCISE 2 (30).

Translate into Spanish—

1. Somebody thinks that the imports of food-stuffs will increase.

2. Some wheat buyers take little notice of the higher American cable advices (las subidas que se han telegrafiado desde América).

3. Weavers and spinners are all holding up their prices.

4. Each week shows an improvement.

5. We hear the same reports (noticias) from all quarters (partes).

6. Neither of these machines will suit (conviene á) our requirements.

7. We accept these bills but refuse the others.

8. Anybody who has his own interests at heart will contribute to the realisation of the scheme.

9. I did all I could (podía) so that nothing should be lost (no se perdiera nada).

10. Some say the market will go up, some say it will go down, and such is the position that one does not know (no sabe) what to do.

11. Anything is preferable to this uncertainty.

12. I have not seen anything so pretty before.

13. Mail advices (los anuncios por la mala) from America report an abnormal (anormal) curtailment of production in the United States Cotton
Mills.

14. They cannot take the risk of piling up stocks when the demand is so slight (exigua).

15. Foreign Bourses.—Berlin. A weak tone ruled at the opening. During the later dealings (operaciones posteriores) a slight (ligera)
improvement was noticeable (se observó).

LESSON XVI.
(Lección décima sexta.)

THE VERB.

The verb is a word by which we affirm something. It is the essential word in a sentence: without it (expressed or understood) no sentence can be construed.

Verbs are divided into Auxiliary, Transitive and Intransitive.

The Auxiliary verbs in Spanish are: Haber, Tener, Ser, Estar.

Haber is a true auxiliary because it helps to form compound tenses[112] but it presents the following peculiarities—

1. It is used as an impersonal verb (as well as the verb hacer which is given here for the sake of completeness) for expressions of time, as—

Dos años ha (or ha dos años) or hace dos años la exportación de los
Caldos españoles estaba muy floreciente: Two years ago the exportation of Spanish wines and oils was very flourishing.

Ha dos años (or hace dos años) que la casa Guillermo Fernandez y Cía está establecida en La Coruña como Comisionistas: The firm, G.F. & Co., has been established in Corunna as Commission Agents these last two years.

¿Cuanto tiempo ha (or hace) que estudia V. el castellano? How long have you been studying Spanish?

[Footnote 112: The Past Part. following "haber" IS ALWAYS INVARIABLE.]

2. It is also used impersonally as "there to be" (French, "y avoir"), as—

Hay mucha pimienta, clavos, y canela en el mercado de Londres: There are much pepper, cloves, and cinnamon in the London market.

Sí, hubo muchas especias el año pasado también: Yes, there were many spices last year also.

Cuando estaba en El Cairo había miedo de que estallara algún motín: When
I was in Cairo there was the fear of some riots breaking out.

(N.B.—Impersonal verbs are only used in the 3rd pers. singular.)

In English we have "there is" and "there are," because "there to be" is not used impersonally, the meaning being, e.g., "a man is there"; "two men are there." In Spanish, however, haber is used impersonally and both "there is a man" and "there are two men" are translated "Hay un hombre," "Hay dos hombres."

It will be noticed that Haber used for "there to be" makes Hay instead of Ha for the present indicative. All its other tenses remain unchanged: había, hubo, habrá, habría, etc.

Hay que followed by an Infinitive (French "il faut"), it is necessary to …, as—

Hay que tener mucho cuidado: It is necessary to be very careful. I, you, etc., must be very careful.

Tener is generally a =principal= (viz., not an auxiliary) verb, used to denote possession; but it is used sometimes as an =auxiliary= instead of haber, as—

Tengo recibido su catálogo ilustrado y lista (or boletín) de precios: I have received your illustrated catalogue with price list.

Tenemos recibida[113] su apreciable carta de 20 del que rige (or del corriente): We have received your favour of the 20th inst.

¿Tiene V. recibidas las cotizaciones? Have you received the quotations?

Los presupuestos, que tenemos recibidos del Trapiche para nuestro
Ingenio de la Habana: The estimates which we have received for the Sugar
Mill for our Factory in Havana.

In all the preceding examples tener used instead of haber introduces an additional idea of "=possession=".

"He recibido su carta" might be followed, in Spanish, by "pero la he perdido" (but I have lost it). "Tengo recibida su carta" implies that the receiver holds it now.

[Footnote 113: The Past Part. following "tener" agrees in gender and number with the direct object.]

Sometimes this idea of possession is very distantly implied, as—

¿Qué me dice V.? tengo leído ese proyecto de Ley: What are you talking about? I have read that (Parliamentary) Bill.

Meaning that the effect of the reading is extant in the mind.

Colloquially the people will use tener for haber without any allusion to possession, but this should be avoided.

VOCABULARY.

=anteayer=, the day before yesterday
=apresurar=, to hasten, to urge (a.)
=apresurarse=, to hasten (n.)
=apresurarse con sus órdenes=, to rush one's orders
=árbol de eje=, axle shaft
=cámara de comercio=, chamber of commerce
=cigüeña, árbol de cigüeña, cigüeñal=, crank-shaft
=compañía de ferrocarril=, railway company
=con manchas=, (designs)—spot
=con puntitas, con bolitas=, (designs) spot
=contestar=, to answer, to reply
=cuadritos=, (designs) checks
=cuenta simulada=, pro forma account
=culpa=, blame, fault
=daño=, damage, injury, breakdown
=de buena tinta=, from a good source
=derecho=, right
=duda=, doubt
=equivocarse=, to be mistaken
=existencias=, stocks of goods
=expedidor=, sender
=fecha de=, dated
=listados=, (designs) striped
=á listas, á rayas=, (designs) striped
=malcontento=, uneasiness, discontent
=mundial=, world (adj.)
=próximamente=, about, approximately
=pues=, well
=redactar=, to write out
=repentinamente=, suddenly
=representación exclusiva=, sole agency
=responsabilidad=, responsibility
=retardar=, to delay, to be delayed
=*romperse=, to break (n.)
=roto=, broken
=todavía=, yet
=vivir=, to live, to reside
=ya=, already

EXERCISE 1 (31).

Translate into English—

1. En la Asociación de Agricultores de España (Society of Spanish
Agriculturists) dará mañana viernes á las seis y media de la tarde una conferencia (lecture) el ilustrado Sr. Fulano.

2. ¿Como mañana? ya la ha dado esta mañana.

3. No sabía que la había dado ya.

4. Pues tengo esta noticia de buena tinta y no hay duda que así es.

5. Tenemos recibida su estimada, fecha de anteayer.

6. Mucho tiempo ha que tengo proyectadas estas empresas.

7. Habrá un mes que me escribió y no le he contestado todavía.

8. La Cámara de Comercio de Londres votó, después de larga discusión, una protesta contra el nuevo Tratado de Comercio con Cuba y redactó una petición que será dirigida al gobierno.

9. El vapor inglés "Raleigh" que sale para Montevideo ha recibido un marconigrama anunciando que reina allí el malcontento político.

10. El aviador acaba de batir el "record" mundial de velocidad y distancia recorriendo (covering) ciento veintidós kilómetros en hora y media, á saber (namely) próximamente 80 kilómetros por hora.

11. No se equivoca V. en la interpretación de lo que hemos escrito acerca de las facturas simuladas.

12. El árbol de eje y el cigüeñal se han roto.

EXERCISE 2 (32).

Translate into Spanish—

1. Have you obtained the sole agency for (de) that firm?

2. Not yet, but I hope to get it.

3. How long have you been living in England?

4. Two weeks ago prices were so high that buyers were rushing their orders; now they have suddenly fallen to an unprecedented level (nivel sin precedente).

5. He has examined the samples and found that the designs of the light grounds (fondos claros) are not as ordered.

6. He also complains of the checks and stripes.

7. The spot muslins have been delayed owing to a breakdown in the works
(la fábrica).

8. The senders are trying to throw the blame on (á) the Railway Company, but we have no right of claim (derecho de reclamar) against the latter
(ésta); it is they who (son ellos quienes) must indemnify us for the loss.

9. It is a well-founded (bien establecida) and respectable firm and they will not deny their responsibility—there is no doubt about (de) that.

10. Is it long since you received their last (última) letter?

11. Have they been long established? (Hace mucho tiempo que….)

12. They have been for 15 years.

13. Our friends have large stocks but they say the market is looking up
(mejorando).

LESSON XVII.
(Lección décima séptima.)

"SER" AND "ESTAR."

=Ser= is used as a true auxiliary, when it forms the passive voice.

=Estar= is an auxiliary when it forms the progressive tenses, as

Estoy escribiendo (I am writing).
Estaba escribiendo (he was writing).

The difficulty in the employment of ser and estar is, by some, unduly magnified. Others give the following rule—

Ser denotes a permanent state. Estar "temporary"

This rule should not be adopted because often it would not apply, as the following two examples will show—

Él es soldado porque se ha alistado por dos años: He is a soldier as he has enlisted for two years.

Aquellos montes están eternamente cubiertos de nieve: Those mountains are perpetually covered with snow.

The following simple and true rules will enable the student to understand the difference between ser and estar and to apply them correctly.

Ser is used—

1. To form the Passive Voice, as—

El cartero trajo las cartas—Active: The postman brought the letters.

La carta fué traída[114] por el cartero—Passive[115]: The letter was brought by the postman.

[Footnote 114: The Past Part. following "Ser" and "Estar" agrees in gender and number with the subject of these verbs.]

[Footnote 115: Este cuarto es barrido todos los días (this room is swept every day) is passive voice, because we speak of the action of sweeping, viz., somebody sweeps the room every day. Este cuarto está barrido—no voice; "barrido" is used as an adjective to denote state or condition.]

2. To denote an inherent[116] quality, as—

La nieve es blanca: Snow is white.
El hombre es mortal: Man is mortal.

[Footnote 116: Inherence = a fixed state of being in another body. A quality may be inherent "for the time being," as: Juan se ha alistado por dos años, entonces es soldado: John has enlisted for two years, then he is a soldier.]

Estar is used to denote—

1. State in locality, viz., to be in a place, as—

Estoy aquí I am here.
Londres está en Inglaterra: London is in England.

2. A condition, as—

Estoy candado: I am tired.
Está enfermo: He is ill.

SUPPLEMENTARY RULES.

Ser must be used—

1. Before any noun (even if an adjective or article intervenes), as—

Soy negociante: I am a merchant.

Es un corredor de cambios bien conocido: He is a well-known exchange broker.

Son buenos valores: They are good securities.

2. When "to be" is used to denote possession, as—

Los trapiches son de estos fabricantes: The sugar mills belong to these makers.

3. When "to be" us used impersonally, as—

Es necesario tomar medidas legales: It is necessary to take legal proceedings.

4. Before the words "Feliz," "Infeliz," "Pobre," and "Rico."[117]

[Footnote 117: These are not, strictly speaking, "inherent qualities,"
but they are spoken of as such.]

Estar must, of course, be always used before Present Participles,[118]
as—

Está activando sus esfuerzos: He is making still further efforts.
Estamos extendiendo nuestras relaciones: We are extending our connection.

[Footnote 118: A Pres. Part. can only express a condition, not a quality.]

Verbs ending in cer, cir, ger and gir change the c into =z= and the g into =j= before a or o as—

+———————————+———————————-+
| =Vencer= (to win) | =Dirigir= (to direct)|
+———————————+———————————-+
|Pres. Indic., venzo| dirijo |
|Pres. Subj., venza| dirija |
+———————————+———————————-+

Verbs ending in guir and quir change the gu into =g= and the qu into =c= before a or o, as—

+————————————-+————————————-+
| =Distinguir= | =Delinquir=[119] |
| (to distinguish) |(to commit a delinquency)|
+————————————-+————————————-+
|Pres. Indic., Distingo| Delinco |
|Pres. Subj., Distinga| Delinca |
+————————————-+————————————-+

[Footnote 119: The only verb ending in quir.]

VOCABULARY.

=acabar de=, to have just
=accesorio=, accessory
=activo y pasivo=, assets and liabilities
=antiguo=, old, ancient
=avería=, particular, particular average
=balance=, balance, balance sheet
=bastar=, to suffice, to be enough
=biela=, connecting rod
=caldera=, boiler
=cilindros=, cylinders
=citar=, to quote, to mention a passage
=*convenir=, to agree, to suit
=cotizar=, to quote prices
=cuenta de ganancias y pérdidas=, profit and loss account
=dejar=, to leave, to let
=disposición (á su)=, (at your) disposal
=durar=, to last
=el engranaje=, the gearing
=entregar=, to deliver
=equipo=, equipment
=es decir, ó sea= viz., namely
=á saber= viz., namely
=franco de porte=, carriage paid
=grifo=, cock (machinery)
=hasta la fecha=, (made up) to date
=huelga=, strike
=imprevisto=, unforseen
=á la izquierda=, to the left
=llegar á ser=, to become, to contrive to be
=*mantenerse=, to be maintained
=máquina=, machine, engine
=mercerizar=, to mercerize
=para con=, towards
=transporte seguido=, carriage forward
=porte pagadero al destino=, carriage forward
=presentar=, to present
=proveer=, to provide
=provisto (proveído)=, provided
=semejante=, similar
=*sentir=, to be sorry, to feel
=sin embargo=, however
=soportes, coginetes=, bearings
=tornillos=, screws
=transporte pagado=, carriage paid
=tubos=, tubes
=válvula=, valve
=el volante=, the fly-wheel
=y pico= (=veinte y pico=, etc.), odd, (twenty odd, etc.)

EXERCISE 1 (33).

Translate into English—

1. La marca (the make) de estas máquinas y calderas es una de las más antiguas.

2. Son fabricadas en Inglaterra por los Srs. Fulano y Cía.

3. Están aquí para su inspección y están todas provistas de sus accesorios: cilindros, volantes, bielas, soportes, engranajes, válvulas y tornillos.

4. ¿No se fabrican también en Francia máquinas semejantes?

5. Sí, Señor, estas á la izquierda son francesas y son buenas máquinas.

6. Es cierto sin embargo que las inglesas son mejores y que están en primera línea en la industria mundial.

7. Los Srs. Fulano y Cía. han llegado á ser los primeros entre los constructores que han comprendido que se podían entregar máquinas excelentes á un precio relativamente bajo.

8. Para no citar más que un ejemplo de la importancia de esta casa basta decir que son suyas las 1,000 máquinas y pico que se han exportado últimamente para Italia y la Argentina.

9. Soy feliz de saberlo.

10. Son fabricantes ricos y al mismo tiempo generosos para con los que son pobres é infelices.

11. Compraré diez fardos de Estampados Mercerizados si me los deja V. á
5-3/16 d. por yarda.

12. Está bien; ¡está convenido!

EXERCISE 2 (34).

Translate into Spanish—

1. We have just received your Price List, but we are sorry to say your prices are too dear.

2. The cylinders and boilers are now ready.

3. Every engine is sent out with its complete equipment, viz., tubes, valves, cocks, etc.

4. The Directors are preparing a balance sheet to be laid before (para presentar á) the company at the next ordinary general meeting.

5. It will show the assets and liabilities and a profit and loss account made up to date.

6. There will also be a report on the position and transactions of the company.

7. It is your action which has done us more harm (daño) than anything else (cualquier otra cosa[120]).

8. It is we (somos nosotros) who are tired of our agreement (convenio).

9. The goods are at your disposal.

10. We think the shares will be inactive (flojas).

11. The demand for steel, iron and copper was very steady (firme) but it is probable that it will not last.

12. Are you rich? No, I am poor but I am happy.

13. Our quotations will be maintained except in case of strikes or other unforeseen circumstances.

14. The four bales of linens will be delivered to you carriage paid, but the boilers and (y sus) accessories you will receive (los recibirán)
carriage forward.

15. The whole (todo) will be insured with particular average.

[Footnote 120: Or: =que nada más=.]

LESSON XVIII.
(Lección décima octava.)

TRANSITIVE VERBS.

A verb is Transitive when its action passes from the subject of the action to the object.

=Transitive Verbs= are divided into—

=1. Active= (when the subject of the verb stands for the doer or agent of the action), as—

Renovamos nuestros ofrecimientos de servicios: We renew our offers of services.

=2. Passive= (when the subject of the verb stands for the real object of the action, viz., when it suffers the action instead of doing it), as—

Los ofrecimientos de sus servicios nos fueron renovados en su último escrito: His offers of services were renewed to us in his last letter.

The Passive voice in Spanish is formed with the verb ser as above, or by using the =active voice= with the pronoun se, as—

Se nos renovaron los ofrecimientos de sus servicios: His offers, etc.

Active verbs become reflexive when their subject and object are the same person or thing, as—

Nos lisonjeamos poderlos servir por lo mejor de sus intereses: We flatter ourselves that we can serve them to the best of their interests.

Reflexive verbs in the plural are also reciprocal, as—

Nos comprendemos: We understand each other.

Nos escribimos muy frecuentemente: We write to each other very frequently.

"Uno á otro" and "los unos á los otros" may be added for greater clearness, as—

Procuramos convencernos (á nosotros mismos). We try to convince ourselves (each other).

Procuramos convencernos (el uno al otro). We try to convince ourselves
(each other).

The direct object of a transitive verb,[121] if a proper name of a person or place, must be preceded by á, as—

Vimos al Señor Guillermo: We saw Mr. William.
Visitamos á Francia[122]: We visited France.

[Footnote 121: With the exception of "Tener."]

[Footnote 122: But not geographical names preceded by the article, as:
Avistamos La Habana (we sighted Havana).]

Á is also generally used before any noun =indicating= a person,[123]
as—

Empleamos á este corresponsal: We employ this correspondent.

[Footnote 123: This part of the rule is not very strict, as we find it sometimes omitted before persons, and at others used before names of things, as: El hecho precedió á la palabra (the action preceded the word).]

But á should be avoided whenever it would engender confusion, or when the verb governs an accusative and a dative at the same time, as—

Enviamos nuestro dependiente: We send our clerk.

Recomendamos el Sr. Pérez á nuestro fabricante: We recommend Mr. Pérez to our manufacturer.

Á is also omitted when the noun following it does not refer to a particular individual, but to =any= individual of a certain class, as—

Busco criado: I am looking for a servant.

Juan no quiere socios en su empresa: John does not want any partners in his undertaking.

Verbs whose root ends in ll or ñ take =e= and =o= instead of ie and io, as—

+———————————————+———————————————-+
| =Bullir= (to boil). | =Gruñir= (to growl, grumble).|
+———————————————+———————————————-+
|Pres. Part., Bullendo |Gruñendo |
|Past Def. Bulló, bulleron|Gruñó, gruñeron[124] |
+———————————————+———————————————-+

[Footnote 124: The Imperf. and Fut. Subj. follow the Past Def.]

Verbs in whose conjugations i should come =unstressed= between two vowels change the unstressed i into =y=, as—

+—————————————————+
| =Creer= (to believe). |
+—————————————————+
|Pres. Part., Creyendo. |
|Past Def., Creyó … creyeron.|
+—————————————————+

But the Imperf. Indic.: creía, creías, creía, creíamos, creíais, creían.

Verbs ending in zar change the z into =c= before =e= (because, with very few exceptions, z is not used in modern Spanish before e or i), as—

+————————————————————————————-+
| =Gozar= (to enjoy). |
+————————————————————————————-+
|Pres. Subj., Goce, goces, goce, gocemos, gocéis, gocen.|
|Past. Def., Gocé … |
+————————————————————————————-+

VOCABULARY.

=abedul=, birch
=abeto=, fir
=adjunto=, herewith
=agradable=, agreeable, pleasant
=arpillera=, bagging
=asegurar=, to insure
=atribuir=, to attribute
=el billar=, billiards
=bola=, ball
=calzado=, footwear
=camas, armazones de cama=, bedsteads
=carne seca=, jerked beef
=chalecos=, vests
=consignación=, consignment
=correas=, belts, belting (machinery)
=corresponsal=, correspondent
=egoísta=, selfish
=encaminar=, to forward
=entrar en el dique=, to dock (ships)
=fresno=, ash
=garbanzos=, Spanish or chick peas
=á grande velocidad=, by passenger train
=guisantes=, green peas
=habas=, broad beans
=haya=, beech
=hortalizas=, green vegetables
=instruir=, to instruct
=judías=, French beans
=latón=, brass
=la leche=, the milk
=loza=, crockery
=á pequeña velocidad=, by slow train
=pino=, pine
=plomo=, lead
=porcelana=, china
=productos químicos=, chemicals
=roble, encina=, oak
=rotura=, breakage
=semestre=, half-year
=suprimir=, to suppress, to leave out
=tacos=, billiard-cues
=el viaje=, the journey
=zinc=, zinc

EXERCISE 1 (35).

Translate into English—

1. Estimamos en mucho á nuestros corresponsales y los servimos de la mejor manera posible.

2. Comunica el capitán del vapor "Ríos" que el jueves, al medio día, se hallaba á seiscientas millas de Veracruz, sin novedad (all well).

3. Hoy publica la Gaceta dos cuadros estadísticos (statistical tables)
formados por la Dirección general (Board) del Instituto Geográfico y
Estadístico, que expresan el movimiento de pasajeros por mar habido en nuestro puerto durante el semestre pasado, y por los cuales se viene en conocimiento (we can see) de la emigración é inmigración española.

4. Desde el día 1° de Enero próximo satisfará (will pay) el calzado extranjero 10% más de derecho de importación.

5. Una comisión de Agricultores de Valencia visitó ayer tarde (yesterday evening) al Presidente del Consejo (the Premier) para pedirle que se suprima el impuesto sobre el transporte de hortalizas que establece la nueva ley.

6. Tiñendo estas telas con anilina se aumenta el coste de seis céntimos por metro.

7. Bulleron[125] la leche y la esterilizaron.

8. Gocemos de las libertades á que tenemos derecho pero no abusemos de ellas.

9. Ellos creyeron lo que les dijimos (we said to them) y ya no nos atribuyen intenciones egoístas.

10. El Sr. Moreno sale para un viaje de negocios y visitará á Santo
Domingo y la Habana.

11. He visto los Alpes y el Pirineo pero no el Himalaya.

12. He visitado á España.

[Footnote 125: "To boil" is generally hervir. Bullir is given as an example of the conjugation.]

EXERCISE 2 (36).

Translate into Spanish—

1. Kindly see Mr. Marino and inform him that we shall soon send him a consignment of timber, consisting of ash, beech, birch, fir, pine and oak.

2. We shall instruct our correspondent at Bilbao to forward to Vitoria the brass, lead, tin (estaño), and zinc he holds (tiene) at our disposal.

3. By the boat (steamer) leaving (que sale) this week, we shall ship to your consignment the bagging, belting, and bedsteads.

4. The "María" docked yesterday with a cargo of broad beans, French beans, green peas, and Spanish or chick peas.

5. She also brings a parcel of jerked beef and canned tongues (lenguas en latas).

6. I have a friend who is a dealer in billiard tables, balls and cues.

7. The candles and chemicals have been despatched last week.

8. We flatter ourselves that we shall shortly be able to write to each other pleasanter letters.

9. We have insured the china and crockery free of particular average
(franco de), but we insured them against breakage at a (al) premium of
4%.

10. Herewith please find claim (reclamo) for loss through (por) damage in your last shipment of clocks and watches.

11. Please send by slow train the coats, vests, and trousers and, by passenger train, the remainder of the articles.

LESSON XIX.
(Lección décima nona.)

INTRANSITIVE VERBS.

Intransitive verbs express a state, as "to live," "to sleep," or an action that does not go beyond the doer, as "to go," "to walk."

The Spanish language abounds in Intransitive Pronominal verbs, i.e., verbs conjugated, same as the reflexive verbs, with a double pronoun =of the same person= all through, as—

=Quejarse= (to complain).

Pres. Indic., Yo me quejo, tú te quejas, él se queja, nosotros nos quejamos, vosotros os quejáis, ellos se quejan.

Fut. Indic., Yo me quejaré, tú te quejarás, él se quejará, etc.

These, of course, must not be confused with the Reflexive verbs. In the reflexive verb, we have an action that passes from the doer and falls on the doer itself, as—

Yo me amo: I love myself.

Whilst in a neuter pronominal the action =does not go beyond the doer=.

=Intransitive Pronominal Verbs= are of three kinds—

1. Those which are always pronominal, as—

+——————————————+———————————————+
|Quejarse (to complain) |Jactarse (to boast) |
|Avergonzarse (to be ashamed)|Maravillarse[126] (to wonder) |
|Alegrarse[126] (to rejoice) |Proponerse[126] (to intend, to|
|Arrepentirse (to repent) | purpose) |
|Hacerse[126], volverse[126] |Desanimarse[126] (to feel |
| (to become) | discouraged) |
+——————————————+———————————————+

[Footnote 126: Some of these verbs may be also Transitive verbs with a modified meaning, as: Alegrar (to gladden), Maravillar (to surprise),
Proponer (to propose). Here the pronominal form marks the difference between Transitive and Intransitive.]

2. A few which, when used pronominally, have their meaning intensified or more or less modified, as—

+————————————+—————————————————+
|Ir (to go) |Irse (to go away) |
|Reir (to laugh) |Reírse (to laugh at = suggesting |
| | scorn) |
|Entender (to understand)|Entenderse de paños (to be a judge|
| | of cloths) |
|Dormir (to sleep) |Dormirse (to fall asleep) |
|Correr (to run) |Correrse (to make a slip of the |
| | tongue). |
+————————————+—————————————————+

3. Many which may be used pronominally or otherwise without any appreciable or definable modification of meaning, as—

Estar, estarse (to be)
Quedar, quedarse (to remain)
Casar (con), casarse (con), (to marry)
Pensar, pensarse (to think)
Yo pienso, or me pienso que sí (I think so)
Me escapó de la memoria or (it escaped my memory).
Se me escapó de la memoria (it escaped my memory).

In the case of this third kind, students should not indulge freely in the pronominal form, but should wait until they see it in the reading of good books, because, although the meaning is practically the same in all cases, still there are "finesses" of shade which practice alone can teach.

=Irregular Verbs=.

We shall give only those Primary Tenses which are irregular and the
Derivative Tenses when they are not formed regularly from the Primary
Tenses from which they are derived[127]—

[Footnote 127: For Primary and Derivative Tenses see Synopsis at the end.]

+———————-+——————————————————————+
| | =Pensar= (to think).[128] |
|Pres. Indic.,|Pienso-as-a, pensamos, pensáis, piensan. |
|Pres. Subj., |Piense-es-e, pensemos, penséis, piensen. |
|Imperative, |Piensa, pensad (reg.). |
+———————-+——————————————————————+
| | =Acordar= (to agree).[128] |
|Pres. Indic.,|Acuerdo-as-a, acordamos, acordáis, acuerdan.|
|Pres. Subj., |Acuerde-es-e, acordemos, acordéis, acuerden.|
|Imperative, |Acuerda, acordad (reg.). |
+———————-+——————————————————————+

[Footnote 128: And its group; see Appendix VI.]

VOCABULARY.

=agitarse=, to agitate (n.)
=algo=, something, anything (interrog.)
=amenaza=, threat
=anticipación=, anticipation
=anticipar=, to anticipate
=anticipo=, advance
=arduo=, arduous, difficult
=baja=, decline
=bajo cubierta=, underdeck
=botones=, buttons
=callar=, to be silent, to abstain from saying
=camaradas=, comrades
=cepillo=, brush
=cinta=, ribbon
=cortarse=, to cut oneself, to stop short
=damascos=, damasks
=definitivo=, definite
=descuidar=, to neglect
=ejecutar=, to execute
=encaje de cortinas=, curtain lace
=espantarse=, to be frightened
=estiva=, stowage
=*imponer=, to impose
=impuesto=, imposed
=lienzo adamascado=, diaper
=pasas=, raisins
=patronos=, masters, employers of workmen
=prisa=, haste, hurry
=*producir=, to produce
=produje=, I produced
=produjeron=, they produced
=razón= (=á razón de=), at the rate of
=reglamento=, regulations
=sobre cubierta=, on deck
=sobre estadías=, demurrage
=sobrecargarse=, to overload oneself
=tonelada=, ton
=*traer=, to bring, to carry
=traje=, I brought, I carried
=tranquilo=, quiet
=uvas=, grapes
=vista= (=á la=), at sight

EXERCISE 1 (37).

Translate into English—

1. Nuestros obreros se quejan del nuevo reglamento impuesto por los
Patronos.

2. No se avergüenzan de decir que se arrepienten de no haber declarado la huelga hace quince días y se alegran que sus camaradas en Francia se agitan por el día de trabajo de ocho horas.

3. Este problema se va haciendo cada día mas arduo.

4. Voy á escribir una carta y después me iré.

5. ¿Porqué ríe V.?

6. Se ríe de mí sin duda porque no me espanto por sus amenazas, pero yo sé bien lo que me hago (what I do) y V. no sabe lo que se dice.

7. Este fabricante se entiende muy bien de paños.

8. Nunca he visto á un hombre activo dormirse en medio de su trabajo.

9. Quédese V. aquí, estése tranquilo y no piense á nada, su primo se acuerda con V., me pienso verle esta tarde, y tal vez llegaremos á un acuerdo común y definitivo.

10. No deseo que piense V. que descuido la ejecución de sus órdenes á la mayor brevedad (as soon as possible).

11. Con la prisa me he corrido y he dicho algo que habría debido callar.

12. Después de haber principiado á hablar muy bien se cortó y no pudo hallar palabras para continuar.

EXERCISE 2 (38).

Translate into Spanish—

1. You have anticipated my wishes.

2. A further (nueva) decline in prices is anticipated (se prevé).

3. We overloaded ourselves with stocks in anticipation (en la esperanza)
of large orders.

4. To pay in anticipation.

5. Thanking you in anticipation (anticipando las gracias, or agradeciéndoles de antemano) we remain.

6. The news from the East (Levante) produced a bad effect on the market.

7. To this effect (con este fin) I wrote him to draw (que girase) at sight.

8. Our efforts have all been to no effect (en balde).

9. His plans have been carried into effect (llevados á cabo).

10. The sailing vessel (velero) carried 800 tons of grapes and raisins,
600 under and 200 on deck.

11. She used 5 lay days in loading (la carga), having therefore 3 days left (quedándole), so that (así que) we do not think we shall have to pay demurrage.

12. The captain paid for stowage at the rate of 1s. per ton.

13. The advance on account (á cuenta) of freight is £120.

14. I wonder if everything will be in order? (¿Estará todo en orden?)

15. I send you several patterns of curtain-lace, damasks, diapers, ribbons, buttons, and brushes.

LESSON XX.
(Lección vigésima.)

IMPERSONAL VERBS.

Impersonal verbs are those which are only conjugated in the 3rd pers.
sing, of all the tenses.[129]

[Footnote 129: They are so called because they have no person or thing as their subject.]

The principal =Impersonal Verbs= are—

Llover-llueve (to rain, it rains)
Granizar (to hail)
Helar-hiela (to freeze, it freezes)
Lloviznar (to drizzle)
Nevar-nieva (to snow, it snows)
Relampaguear (to lighten)
Tronar-truena (to thunder, it thunders)
Alborear (to dawn)
Amanecer (to dawn)
Anochecer (to grow dark)

The subject (generally understood) of Impersonal verbs is ello.
Sometimes we find the words Dios or el día expressed as subjects, as—

Amanecerá Dios y veremos: Let us wait for the morning and then we shall see.

Amaneció el día: The day dawned.

Amanecer and anochecer may be used as personal verbs, as—

Amanecimos en Madrid y anochecimos en Guadalajara: We were in Madrid at daybreak and at nightfall in Guadalajara.

Tú anocheciste bueno y amaneciste malo: You passed the night well, but you had a bad morning.

Many ordinary verbs are used sometimes impersonally, as—

Bastar (to suffice).
Convenir (to suit).
Parecer (to appear).
Faltar[130] (to be wanting).
Hacer falta (to be wanted).
Suceder[131] (to happen).

[Footnote 130: As a personal verb, it means also "to fail."]

[Footnote 131: As a personal verb, it means also "to succeed."]

EXAMPLES—

Basta ganar la vida: It is enough to earn a living.

No conviene explotar esta mina: It does not pay to exploit this mine.

No parece justo que se aprovechen de este modo: It does not seem right that they should take advantage in this way.

Falta hacer algunos arreglos: Some arrangements are still wanting.

Sucedió que se declaró en quiebra: It happened that he filed his petition in bankruptcy.

In the sentences:

Me bastan diez libras: £10 are enough for me.
Me parecen justas sus razones: His reasons seem to me to be right.
Le sucedieron muchas desgracias: Many misfortunes happened to him.

the verb is =personal=, and this accounts for its being in the plural.
In "me bastan diez libras," "diez libras" is the subject.

The verb is impersonal when referring to a whole statement, as—

(Ello) es necesario: It is necessary.

Of Haber and Hacer as impersonal verbs, we have treated in Lesson
VIII and Lesson XVI.

We add here that Hacer is used impersonally before certain nouns to denote the state of the weather or of the temperature, as—

Hace calor, frío, lluvia, viento, sol, etc.: It is warm, cold, rainy, windy, sunny, etc.

Valer used impersonally = "to be better," as—

Más vale así: It is better so.

Expressions like "¿Qué se dirá?" or "¿qué dirán?" (What will people say?) may also be called impersonal uses of the verb.

+——————————+————————————————————+
| =Irregular Verbs= (contd.). |
+——————————+————————————————————+
| =Andar= (to walk, to go). |
|Past Def., | Anduve,-iste,-uvo,-uvimos-uvisteis-uvieron.|
+——————————+————————————————————+
| =Dar= (to give). |
|Pres. Indic.,| Doy,[132] das, da, damos, dais, dan. |
|Pres. Subj., | Dé, des, dé, demos, deis, den. |
|Past Def., | Dí, diste, dió, dimos, disteis, dieron. |
+——————————+————————————————————+

[Footnote 132: Only 6 verbs in Spanish do not end in o in the 1st pers.
sing., pres. indic., viz., Doy (I give), Soy (I am), Estoy (I am), Voy
(I see), He (I have), Sé (I know).]

VOCABULARY.

=algo=, somewhat
=asunto=, matter
=calor=, heat
=carranclanes, guingas=, ginghams
=cerrar el trato=, to conclude the bargain
=cheques=, cheques
=circular=, to circulate, to go round
=cobrar=, to collect (money)
=comprometer=, to compromise
=costa=, coast
=cuesta=, slope
=cuidar=, to take care
=cuidarse=, to take care of oneself
=decididamente=, decidedly
=decidir=, to decide
=después=, afterwards
=drogas=, drysalteries
=durante=, during
=faltar, hacer falta=, to be wanting, to be wanted
=el fin=, the end
=fustanes=, fustians
=gasa=, gauze
=gastos=, expenditure
=ingresos netos=, net revenue
=jamón=, ham
=letras=, bills of exchange
=maíz=, maize
=malbaratar=, to undersell
=mantas con franjas=, fringed blankets
=mercería=, haberdashery
=paseo=, promenade, walk, stroll
=puerto=, port, harbour
=recursos=, means
=*reducir=, to reduce
=reduje=, etc., I reduced, etc.
=reduzco, reduces=, etc., I reduce, etc.
=*seguir=, to follow, to continue
=sigo, sigues=, etc., I follow, etc.
=el temporal=, the storm
=*valer más=, to be preferable
=vencer=, to fall due
=vidriado=, glassware

EXERCISE 1 (39).

Translate into English—

1. Amaneció el día hermoso pero algo frío.

2. Hizo más calor después y por la tarde hizo or sopló (blew) viento fuerte.

3. Anocheció cuando aun no habíamos llegado, pero como hacía luna el paseo siguió siendo (continued to be) agradable.

4. Ayer llovió, granizó, nevó y lloviznó sucesivamente todo el santo día
(the livelong day).

5. Me parece que no le conviene de cerrar el trato con el banco bajo estas condiciones.

6. Me hace falta dinero pues es menester (it is necessary)
proporcionarme (to get) el importe que me falta para completar las
£1,000 que vencen el 15 del corriente.

7. Más vale aceptar las condiciones del banco que tener que malbaratar los géneros.

8. Ande V. con cuidado (be careful) no sea (lest) que vaya V. á comprometer su crédito.

9. Reina por estas costas muy violento temporal á cuya consecuencia ha resultado el vapor "Juan" con el árbol de la hélice (shaft of the screw)
roto, por lo cual hubo de ser traído á remolque á (to be towed into)
este puerto.

10. El "Juan" navegaba con rumbo á (was bound for) Cádiz.

11. Los modernos medios de fabricación de que disponemos, el abaratamiento (cheapening) de la mano de obra (labour) y las facilitaciones de que disfrutamos (we enjoy) merced á (thanks to)
nuestros cuantiosos (abundant) recursos, nos permiten, ahora más que nunca, realizar nuestras ventas en condiciones que no cabe competencia posible (which preclude …).

12. Hemos asegurado buenas partidas de fustanes, mantas con franjas, gasas, y carranclanes.

EXERCISE 2 (40).

Translate into Spanish—

1. San Paulo (Brazilian) Railway.—The net revenue for the half-year from the main line (línea principal) amounted to £607,297 as against
(contra) £743,077 in 1909.

2. The expenditure in England and the Interest on Stores (sobre los depósitos) reduce the amount to £594,714.

3. The Stock Exchange (la Bolsa) will be closed from this evening (esta tarde) until next Monday morning.

4. The turnover (giro) of the day's transactions has been small.

5. Sentiment turned somewhat bearish (hubo disposición á la baja)
during the forenoon (la mañana), but became (se volvió) decidedly bullish (á la alza) towards the end of the day.

6. The following figures show the amount of bills and cheques which passed through the banker's clearing-house (por el banco de liquidación)
during the week ended April 12th (que acabó el 12 de abril).

7. We must not attach (atribuir) too much importance to the rumours (los rumores, las especies) which are circulating in the market.

8. You should take care that the bales are properly (bien) packed.

9. I was ignorant of the fact that (no sabía que) he had been declared a bankrupt.

10. I shall do all that depends on me (de mí dependa) to collect the money in full (por entero).

11. As far as we are concerned (en cuanto á nosotros), we have decided not to take (dar) any steps in the matter.

12. We do not wish to throw good money after bad (echar la soga tras el caldero).[133]

13. We shall invoice by next mail your glassware and haberdashery.

14. Ham is a drug in the market (no tiene salida).

15. A good business is done at present in drysalteries.

16. A good crop of maize is announced from Cape Town (desde el Cabo).

[Footnote 133: Lit.: to throw the rope after the pail.]

LESSON XXI.
(Lección vigésima primera.)

DEFECTIVE AND PRONOMINAL VERBS.

=Defective Verbs= are those only certain parts of which are in use, the rest having never existed in the language or having died out of it.

The principal ones are—

Soler. "To be wont," "to be accustomed to." Used in the pres. indic.,
Suelo, sueles, suele, solemos, soleis, suelen; in the imperf. indic.,
Solía, solías, etc.; and in the pres. perf., He solido, has solido, etc., as—

En su juventud solía trabajar con ahinco—ahora ya ha aflojado un poco:
When he was young he used to work with fervour, now he begins to flag a little.

Yacer. "To lie"; generally on tombstones, as: Aquí yace: Here lies.

(In poetry, but seldom in prose, it is found conjugated throughout.)

Salve and Vale used in the Imperative for "Hail!" and "Farewell!"

Placer (to please). Generally used in "Plegue á Dios" (may it please
God) and "Pluguiera (pluguiese) á Dios" (might it please God).

It is still used also in the 3rd pers. of Pres. Indic., Imperf. Indic, and Past Def. (the Past Def. is "Plugo").

EXAMPLES—

Mucho me place: It pleases me much.

Plegue á Dios que no se declare la huelga: May it please God that a strike is not declared.

Abolir (to abolish) is irregular like "mover" (viz., changes o into ue when stressed). Its irregular parts are however never used, and are substituted by giving a different turn to the sentence, as—

Digo que =se debe abolir= instead of =se abuela=: I say that it must be abolished.

Atañer (to bear upon) is only used in the 3rd pers., as—

Lo que atañe al asunto: What bears on the subject.

Las noticias que atañen a nuestro proyecto: The news that bears on our scheme.

Concerner (to concern) is only used in the pres.
participle—concerniendo (concerning) and in the 3rd persons, as:
concierne (it concerns), etc.

=Pronominal Verbs= are verbs conjugated throughout with a double pronoun of the same person, as—

Amarse—Yo me amo, tú te amas, el se ama, nosotros nos amamos, vosotros os amais, ellos se aman.

These are—

1. Reflexive Verbs (when the action falls back on the subject. See
Lesson XVIII), as—Yo me amo: I love myself.

N.B.—The second pronoun must be direct object. If the second pronoun is indirect object, the verb is called Transitive Pronominal, as—

Procurarse una clientela: To get a clientèle (a connection).

2. Intransitive Pronominal Verbs (see Lesson XIX).

3. Intransitive Verbs made Pronominal from verbs ordinarily transitive
(see Lesson XIX), as—

Hacerse, Volverse: To become.

La competencia se ha hecho imposible: Competition has become impossible.

4. The 3rd pers. pronominal forms the Passive Voice, same as the verb ser, as—

La sabiduría se alaba or es alabada: Wisdom is praised.

N.B.—If the doer is expressed after using ser it may be preceded by de or por, as—

La sabiduría es alabada de or por todos[134]: Wisdom is praised by all.

[Footnote 134: When the verb does not mean a physical action de is preferable.]

If it is expressed after using se, =Por= must be used, as—

La sabiduría se alaba por todos: Wisdom is praised by all. (Grammar of the Academy.)

Pronominal Verbs are used in Spanish very frequently in conjunction with the article to avoid the use of the possessive adjective before parts of the body, or articles of dress,[135] as—

Me he quebrado la pierna: I broke my leg.

Se ha dañado los ojos, or la vista: He has damaged his eyes or eyesight.

[Footnote 135: The article is most generally substituted for the possessive pronoun referring to parts of the body or articles of dress, whenever this can be done without producing ambiguity, as—

Me dió la mano: He gave me his hand.
Tiene los ojos azules: His eyes are blue.
Le cogí el brazo: I caught his arm.
Me duele la cabeza: My head aches.
Me lastiman las botas: My boots hurt me.]

=Irregular Verbs= (contd.).

+————————————————————————————————-+
| =Entender=[136] (to understand). |
+————————————————————————————————-+
|Pres. Indic.,| Entiendo-es-e, entendemos, entendéis, entienden.|
|Pres. Subj., | Entienda-as-a, entendamos, entendáis, entiendan.|
|Imper. Mood, | Entiende, entended (reg.). |
+————————————————————————————————-+

[Footnote 136: And its group (see Appendix IV)]

+——————————————————————————-+
| Mover[137] (to move). |
+——————————————————————————-+
|Pres. Indic.,| Muevo-es-e, movemos, movéis, mueven.|
|Pres. Subj., |Mueva-as-a, movamos, mováis, muevan. |
|Imper. Mood, |Mueve, moved (reg.). |
+——————————————————————————-+

[Footnote 137: And its group (see Appendix IV)]

VOCABULARY.

=acusar recibo=, to acknowledge receipt
=ascensor=, lift, hoist
=bien estar=, well being
=colección=, collection, set of samples
=confiar á=, to entrust
=confiar en=, to trust in
=corresponder á las necesidades=, to meet the requirements
=corriente, el que rige=, inst.
=cucharas=, spoons
=cuchillo=, knife
=cueros=, hides
=*deshacerse=, to get rid of
=deshecho=, got rid of
=distrito=, district
=empacar=, to pack
=empaqué, etc=., I packed, etc.
=*establecerse=, to establish oneself
=me establezco, etc=., I establish myself, etc.
=fantasías=, fancies
=herramientas=, tools
=manga=, sleeve
=*manifestar=, to inform, to say by letter
=manifiesto, etc=., I inform, etc.
=moeres=, mohair
=nanquines=, nankeens
=pieles=, skins
=planchas de hierro=, sheet iron
=principio=, beginning
=telas para trajes= (=de Señora=), dress goods
=tenedores=, forks
=*torcer=, to twist
=tuerzo, etc=., I twist, etc.
=vale=, farewell, adieu
=viajante=, traveller (commercial)
=viajar=, to travel
=vivamente=, earnestly, vividly

EXERCISE 1 (41).

Translate into English—

1. Sin ningunas de sus gratas á que referirnos dirigimos á Vs. la presente para manifestarles que estando muy á corto (short) de fondos nos hemos visto precisados (we have been obliged) á girar á su cargo (on you) por el saldo de nuestra factura de Planchas de Hierro y
Herramientas.

2. ¡Plegue á Dios que nuestros buenos deseos tengan pleno cumplimiento
(may be fully realised)!

3. ¿Quiere V. encargarse (take charge) de ese asunto?

4. Mucho me place (with much pleasure).

5. Se dice que pronto se abolirá esta ley.

6. Tendré mucho gusto que sea abolida (not se abuela).

7. Todo lo que atañe al desarrollo de la agricultura ó que concierne el bien estar general del país me interesa vivamente.

8. La honradez (honesty) es alabada de (or por) todos pero nunca se alaba tanto como por los de manga ancha (those who themselves are not over-scrupulous).

9. El comerciante después de haberse muy bien establecido se consumió el capital en especulaciones bursátiles.

10. Nos hemos deshecho de los cuchillos, tenedores y cucharas sin tanta pérdida como temíamos.

11. El cajero bajando en el ascensor se ha torcido el pie y se está en casa guardando cama (in bed).

12. ¿Entiende V. las razones porque ha de subir el cambio?

13. Para que las entienda debo leer la revista de la Bolsa (Exchange
Review).

14. Entienda V. que esto no ha de hacerse otra vez. ¡Entendido!

EXERCISE 2 (42).

Translate into Spanish—

1. With reference to your esteemed order of 1st inst. for skins and hides, we understand exactly what you want, but we much regret to say that we are unable to get in (obtenerlos) at your limit.

2. We acknowledge receipt of your favour (apreciable) of the 1st inst.
with note of purchase we are to make on (de or por) your account, and we shall report thereon (contestaremos, relataremos) by our next.

3. We have picked up (escogido) a few suitable clearing lines (saldos), which are awaiting shipment (se embarcarán) by next steamer.

4. Stripes and checks.—Owing to a breakdown in the works these will not be ready for (antes de) another fortnight.

5. The goods were packed according to (de conformidad con) your instructions, but we take no responsibility for sending them (haberlos mandado) in bales instead of cases as usual (como de costumbre).

6. We hand (pasamos) you enclosed the invoice amounting to (importando en, ascendiendo a) £155 6s. 7d. to the debit of your account, value
(valor al) 15th inst.

7. We can assure you that any (cualesquiera) orders entrusted to our care (que se nos confíen) will receive careful attention.

8. Our traveller will be in your district by the beginning of September, and he will have much pleasure in waiting upon you (en visitarles) with our full (completa) collection of dress goods and fancies.

9. We hasten to offer you a lot of cheap mohairs and nankeens and hope they will meet your requirements.

Hoping to receive a favourable reply,
Yours faithfully,
SMITH AND Co.

Prices are (van or están) marked on (en) the samples.
S. & Co. (Vale).[138]

[Footnote 138: Used instead of initialling a postscriptum.]

LESSON XXII.
(Lección vigésima segunda.)

THE MOODS.

Mood is that form or modification of the Verb which marks the mode in which an action is viewed or stated.

There are =5= moods in Spanish: one the Infinitive and =4= Finite, viz., the Indicative, Conditional, Subjunctive, and Imperative.

The =Infinitive Mood= (Modo Infinitivo) represents the action or state of being without any reference to time or person. The present and past participles are parts of the Infinitive Mood.

The Infinitive Mood may be used in the capacity of a noun either as
Subject or Object of the sentence. It is then generally (but not necessarily) accompanied by the def. article, as—

El leer es útil: To read is useful.
Me es necesario el leer: It is necessary for me to read.

The form of the Pres. Part. used in this capacity in English is inadmissible in Spanish, e.g., we could never say "leyendo" for "el leer" (or "la lectura").

The Infinitive Mood preceded by á may have a passive meaning, as—

Una consignación á hacer or also á hacerse (á ser hecha): A shipment to be made.

The Infinitive Mood preceded by á may be used instead of the Finite
Mood introduced by "if," as—

Á saber yo que V. era accionista de aquella compañía, le habría comunicado luego aquella relación: If I had known (or had I known) that you were a shareholder in that society, I would have sent you at once that report.
The =Present Participle= after "to be" is used in both languages to form the continuous or progressive tenses; in Spanish this happens much less frequently than in English, and only with verbs whose action implies
=duration of time= and besides when it is spoken of as =actually in progress=. This form is never possible with the verb "to go," and is very rarely found with "to come," as—

Miro aquellas Mantas y Terlices que me gustan: I am looking at those
Blankets and Tickings which I like.

Grita: He is shouting.

Nos escribe continuamente: He is continually writing us.

Hoy como con el arquitecto: To-day I am dining with the architect.

Estoy haciendo mi correspondencia, no puedo dejar el despacho: I am writing my correspondence, I cannot leave the office.

A =Preposition= before a Pres. Part. is either translated by a preposition followed by the Infinitive Mood or by the Pres. Part.
without a Preposition, as—

Al ir _(or _yendo) á la Bolsa; On going to the Exchange.

EXCEPTION—

After en we find the Pres. Part. used with the following meaning—e.g.

En acabando saldré: As soon as I have finished, I shall go out.

"I, acting as trustee," is translated "Yo, procediendo como síndico"; but "I wrote to the party acting as umpire" would be "Escribí á la persona que funcionaba (not funcionando) de árbitro."

After "Intentar,"[139] "Ver," "Oir," "Sentir," and "Simular" the
Infinitive only can be used in Spanish, as—

[Footnote 139: Or verbs of similar meaning.

Intento (or pienso) hipotecar la casa: I intend mortgaging the
house.
Le veo pasar: I see him passing.
"My coming," "my going," etc., are translated: "El venir or el
haber venido yo," etc.]

The Past Part. may be used in an absolute manner, as—

Entregada la carta se fué: The letter (being) delivered, he went.

Sellados los sobres, los echó al correo: Having sealed the envelopes he posted them.

VOCABULARY.

=abogado=, lawyer, barrister
=bombas de aire=, air pumps
=*contribuir=, to contribute
=contribuyo, etc=., I contribute
=convenio=, agreement
=desperdiciar=, to waste
=diseño=, design
=embajador=, ambassador
=empeños=, obligations, engagements
=estación, temporada=, season
=Estados Unidos=, United States
=excelentemente=, excellently
=forma=, shape
=forros=, linings
=gorras=, caps
=*hacer frente=, to face, to meet (bills, etc.)
=honrar=, to honour
=locomotora=, locomotive
=malgastar=, to waste, to squander
=Navidad=, Christmas
=necesitar, desear=, to require
=paso= step
=*poner en conocimiento=, to inform
=ponerse de acuerdo=, to agree
=pormenores=, particulars
=presupuesto=, estimate
=proyectar=, to project, to plan
=representar=, to represent, to act for
=rizo del ala=, curl of the brim (of a hat)
=secretario=, secretary
=senado=, senate
=someter=, to submit
=supondré, etc=., I shall suppose, etc.
=*suponer=, to suppose
=supongo, etc=., I suppose, etc.
=supuse, etc=., I supposed, etc.
=tarea=, task
=tratado de arbitraje=, arbitration treaty
=varar=, to ground (a ship)
=variedad=, variety
=vendré, etc=., I shall come, etc.
=vengo, vienes, etc=., I come, etc.
=*venir=, to come
=vine, etc=., I came, etc.

EXERCISE 1 (43).

Translate into English—

1. El escribir concisa y claramente contribuye al buen éxito (success)
de una casa comercial.

2. Quedan muchos pasos á dar.

3. Á suponer yo que no honrara sus aceptaciones no le habría concedido el crédito.

4. ¿Qué hace V.?

5. Estoy escribiendo un presupuesto para una locomotora y cuatro bombas de aire que se piden para Chile; en acabando mi tarea saldré (I shall come out) con V.

6. Debemos escribir al abogado que representa al Sr. Fulano para ponerle en conocimiento de los pormenores que puedan interesarle.

7. Sí, Señor, pensaba hacerlo mañana.

8. Siento tener que informar á V. que he encontrado al Sr. Smith y le he oído decir que no puede hacer frente á sus empeños.

9. Ejecutada esta primera orden, y pagada que sea (once paid) le manifestaré claramente que no me conviene continuar bajo estas condiciones.

10. Se asegura que el secretario del departamento de Estado y el embajador de Inglaterra se han puesto de acuerdo, hace poco, sobre los principales puntos del tratado de arbitraje proyectado por el Presidente de los Estados Unidos.

11. Se supone que dicho (said) convenio será sometido al senado antes de
Navidad.

12. Se han recibido noticias de haber naufragado (shipwrecked) un buque en la costa de Marruecos (Morocco) y de haber varado otro en Almería.

EXERCISE 2 (44).

Translate into Spanish—

1. I do not consider (no creo que) I have been fairly (equitativamente or bien) treated.

2. Silk and Cotton Linings.—We note (nos enteramos de) your complaints but you know they were bought as job lots (imperfectos) and in buying such lots, one has to put up with (conformarse con) some imperfections (defectos, imperfecciones).

3. The hats and caps have turned out (salido) excellently.

4. The former (aquéllos) are exactly of the shape and curl you require and the latter (éstas) include (abarcan) a large variety of designs.

5. They will reach you (le llegarán) in plenty of time (con bastante anticipación) for the coming (entrante) season.

6. Please report (hacer sus comentos) on samples as soon as received
(luego que las reciban).

7. Reading good papers is necessary to keep oneself posted up
(mantenerse al corriente), but reading the sensational news (noticias sensacionales) of a certain press (prensa) is wasting one's time.

8. Are you going to Spain this year?

9. I do not think so, my correspondent is coming to England.

10. We shall write to the gentleman acting as secretary to send us (que nos envíe) a copy of the report.

11. Did you hear him saying that?

12. I regret having to inform you that once I have paid what I owe (to owe = deber), I shall not continue my transactions with your firm.

LESSON XXIII.
(Lección vigésima tercera.)

THE MOODS (contd.).

The =Indicative Mood= (Modo Indicativo) is that form of the verb that expresses the action in a =positive manner=, as a =fact=.

The =Conditional Mood= (Modo Condicional)[140] affirms like the
Indicative Mood in a positive manner, =but subject to a condition=.

The =Imperative Mood= is used to command or to beg. This mood has only one tense and one distinct form of person: the second, as—

Habla tú: Speak thou.
Hablad vosotros: Speak ye or you.

The 1st pers. sing, does not occur and the other persons are taken from the Present Subjunctive.[141]

In the 3rd person (and sometimes even the 1st plural) the pres. subj.
may take the place of the Imperative used affirmatively. This becomes apparent by the use of Que, which precedes the Subjunctive and when an object pronoun occurs in the sentence, as—

Escríbalo él or Que lo escriba él: Let him write it.

There is no Imperative Mood negative in Spanish.[142]

[Footnote 140: English form: (auxiliary) should + verb for 1st persons;
(auxiliary) would + verb for 2nd and 3rd persons.]

[Footnote 141: With only one exception—
=Ir= (to go). 1st pers. pl., Pres. Subj.—Vayamos. 1st pers. pl.,
Imperative—Vayamos or vamos (more used).]

[Footnote 142: It is borrowed entirely from the Pres. Subjunctive, as:
No hables, no hable, no hablemos, no habléis, no hablen. The difference is of course, only apparent in the 2nd person.]

=The Subjunctive Mood=.

This mood offers some difficulty to English students; this arises from the fact that in English this mode of viewing the action of the verb is often rendered by the indicative mood or by the semi-auxiliary verbs
"may," "might," "should," "would."

=Note=.—The Spanish rule on the Subjunctive mood must be therefore applied irrespective of the English construction.

GENERAL RULE.

The Subjunctive Mood can only be used in dependent clauses, as—

Yo quiero que él venga: I wish him to come.
Yo quiero que él vaya: I wish him to go.

And then, only when, by reason of what precedes in the Principal Clause, the action of the Subordinate verb is not expressed in a positive manner
(i.e., as a fact) but as merely contingent (i.e., only conceived in the mind), as—

Yo declare que él vino (or vendría): I say that he came or that he would come.
Yo espero que él venga: I hope that he may come.
Yo esperaba que él viniese: I hoped that he might, or would come.

SPECIAL RULES.

I. A verb in a dependent clause is placed (generally) in the Subjunctive
Mood after verbs expressing an action, or emotion of the mind, when the subjects of the principal and of the subordinate verbs are different.

EXAMPLES of principal verbs which govern the following verb in the
Subjunctive Mood—

aconsejar (to advise)
alegrarse de que (to be glad that)
avergonzarse de que (to be ashamed that)
conceder (to grant)
conseguir (to obtain)
desear (to desire)
esperar (to hope)
evitar (to avoid)
impedir (to hinder)
mandar (to order)
querer (to wish)
rogar (to ask, to beg)
sentir (to regret)
temer (to fear)
confiar en que (to trust)

N.B.—(a) If the 2nd verb should have the same subject, use the
Infinitive Mood, as—

Deseo que venga: I wish him to come.
Deseo venir: I wish to come.

(b) After verbs expressing joy, shame, sorrow, or fear, the Indicative may be used instead of the Subjunctive.

(c) After "mandar" (to order) the subordinate verb is often in the
Infinitive instead of the Subjunctive, as—

Mándele V. que lo haga: Order him to do it.
Mándeselo V. hacer: Order him to do it.

VOCABULARY.

=agradar, favorecer=, to oblige
=almacenero, dependiente de almacén=, warehouseman
=celebrar=, to be glad of
=colorido=, colouring
=*complacer=, to oblige
=complazco, etc=., I oblige, etc.
=(el) cortapluma=, penknife
=cortésmente=, politely
=coste flete y seguro=, cost, freight and insurance
=*dar las gracias=, to hank
=demora=, delay
=*demostrar confianza=, to show confidence
=deplorar=, to deplore
=dictados=, dictates
=en seguida=, at once
=franco de avería particular=, free of particular average
=*hacer una remesa=, to send a remittance
=intereses=, interests
=justificarse=, to justify oneself
=mucho=, much, exceedingly, greatly
=navajas de afeitar=, razors
=obrar=, to act
=patines=, skates
=primer dependiente=, chief clerk
=propio=, own
=*rogar=, to beg, to request
=ruego, etc=., I beg, etc.
=sin novedad=, safe and sound
=tela para pantalones=, trousering
=tijeras=, scissors

EXERCISE 1 (45).

Translate into English—

1. En nuestra anterior les rogámos[143] nos enviasen una muestra de las telas de nuestros competidores.

2. Celebraremos mucho que encuentren ventaja en el cambio de vía (route)
que hemos adoptado para sus envíos.

3. Siento haber hecho este error y siento también que mi primer dependiente no me lo haya hecho observar.

4. Me avergüenzo que por culpa de un dependiente de almacén negligente haya recibido V. un género por otro (the wrong goods).

5. Nunca me avergüenzo de hablar á las claras (openly, clearly).

6. No podemos ni deberíamos querer impedir á los otros que piensen como quieran; lo que sí debemos hacer es aconsejar á todos que obren según los dictados de su propia conciencia.

7. Lo que me esté bien (is my duty) hacer lo haré.

8. Espero me mande pronto los coloridos para las telas para pantalones.

9. Deploro que él quiera justificarse con argumentos que se quiebran de sutiles (which do not stand the light of day).

10. Explícate para que te entienda.

11. No te justifiques con malas razones (by quibbling).

12. Explíqueme V. de que se trata (what it is about).

13. No le explique V. más de lo necesario.

[Footnote 143: The 1st pers. plural Past Definite of the 1st Conjugation may take an accent to distinguish it from the Present Indicative.]

EXERCISE 2 (46).

Translate into Spanish—

1. We should like to do more business with your firm.

2. You would greatly oblige (us) by sending us a remittance.

3. He would do well to write it to them.

4. Let him write at once.

5. We hope you may arrive safe and sound, and we advise you to take care of yourself.

6. From what we can gather (por lo que tenemos entendido) the firm is doing a successful (buenos) business.

7. We trust this information will be of service (de utilidad) to you.

8. The documents appear to be in order and we hope there will be no difficulty.

9. We are glad the goods have arrived before the time stipulated
(estipulado).

10. We do not want you to lose any money; on the contrary, we wish you to realise a substantial (buena) profit.

11. Tell the clerk to write more politely.

12. Order them to do it quickly.

13. I may come (es posible que venga) to-morrow.

14. We notice (observamos) that the Razors, Scissors, Penknives and
Skates are ready to be shipped, and trust (confiamos) that, as announced
(nos anunciaron Vs.), they will come to hand (llegaran á manos) without delay.

15. We thank you for the confidence you have shown in us which we hope to justify and you may be sure that we shall do our best for (por) your interests.

16. I request you kindly to insure the cargo against total loss or f.p.a.[144]

17. Sell at 21s. c.i.f.[145]

[Footnote 144: Free of particular average.]

[Footnote 145: Cost, insurance, freight.]

LESSON XXIV.
(Lección vigésima cuarta.)

THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD (contd.).

II. The Subjunctive Mood is used after Impersonal verbs, as

Es menester que lo haga: It is needful that he does it.
Es necesario que lo haga: It is necessary that he does it.

EXCEPTIONS—

1. When the Impersonal Verb expresses certainty, as—

Es cierto que lo hará: It is certain that he will do it.

2. When the dependent verb has not its own subject, both the following constructions are correct—

Es necesario hacerlo: It must be done
Es necesario que se haga: It must be done

III. The Subjunctive Mood is used after the following locations—-

Antes que (before)
En caso que (in case)
De miedo que (lest)
Por más que (however much, although)
Sin que (without)
Para que (so that)
Á menos que (unless)
Salvo que (except that)
Con tal que (provided that)
Sea que (whether … or)
Aunque (even if)

IV. The Subjunctive Mood is generally used after the following locations, when the action refers to future time, but the Indicative is used when the action refers to the past or present—

Después que (after)
Aunque (although)
De modo que (so that)
No obstante que (notwithstanding)
Cuandoquiera que (whenever)
Hasta que (until)
Luego que (as soon as)
Quienquiera que (whoever)
Comoquiera que (however)
Cualquiera que (whichever, whoever)
Dondequiera que (wherever)
El 1°, 2°, 3°, etc., que (the 1st 2nd 3rd, etc., that)
El único que (the only one that)
El solo que (the only one that)
El último que (the last that)
Nada que (nothng that)
Ninguo, nadie que (no one that)
El mejor (or any other superlative) que (the best etc., that)

E.g.—

Escribió de modo que su padre quedó contento: He wrote so that his father remained content.

Escriba V. de modo que su padre quede contento: Write so that your father may remain content.

Le pagué aunque no hizo su trabajo: I paid him, although he did not do his work.

No le pagaré aunque haga su trabajo: I shall not pay him although he may do his work.

The above rules have liberties and exceptions to be learnt by practice, generally turning on whether the action is intended to be alluded to =as a fact= or as =a mere conception=.

V. The Subjunctive Mood is used after cuando, así como, luego que and similar expressions when the action of the verb refers =to the future=, as—

Lo haré cuando tenga tiempo: I shall do it when I have time.

N.B.—The Future Subjunctive is often used in this case.

VI. The Subjunctive Mood is used after si (conditional if) when the context requires the following verb in the past form, as—

Lo haría si tuviese (tuviera) dinero: I should do it if I had money.

N.B.—If the context requires the verb in the present form, the
Indicative Present must be used, as—

Lo hago si tengo tiempo: I do it if I have time.

Lo haré si tengo tiempo: I shall do it if I have time.

When, as in the latter example a future time is indicated, the Future
Subjunctive may be used instead of the Pres. Indicative, as—

Lo haré si tuviere tiempo: I shall do it if (ever) I have time.

VII. After como the Subjunctive Mood is used idiomatically but not necessarily, as—

Como le vió le habló: As soon as he saw him he spoke to him.

Como le viese le habló: On seeing him he spoke to him.

VIII. After creer, pensar, opinar, and similar verbs, the following verb is generally in the Indicative; but after no creer, etc., the verb is in the Subjunctive mood. After creer, etc., used interrogatively, the verb may be Indicative or Subjunctive.

VOCABULARY.

=abacá=, Manilla hemp
=calcetines=, half-hose, socks
=cáñamo=, hemp
=cancelar=, to cancel
=coger=, to catch
*=conseguir=, to succeed in
=contado (al)=, (in) cash
=dificultad=, difficulty
=un dineral=, a mint of money
=encogerse=, to shrink
=equivocarse=, to be mistaken
=la gente=, the people
=mecanismo=, mechanism, contrivance
=medias=, stockings, hose
=ocurrir=, to happen
=perfeccionar=, to perfect
=persona=, person
=por mas que=, however much, whatever
*=probar=, to prove, to attempt, to try
=pruebo, etc=., I try, etc.
*=reconvenir=, to reprimand
=repasar=, to look over
*=saber=, to know
=se, sabes, sabe, etc=., I know, etc.
=sepa, sepas, sepa, etc=., I may know,
*=ser menester=, to be necessary
=telefonear=, to telephone
=trabajo=, work
=yute=, jute

EXERCISE 1 (47).

Translate into English—

1. Es conveniente (proper) y aun absolutamente necesario que se acabe esta cuestión.

2. Es cierto que se acabará.

3. Es posible que suba el mercado; tal vez suba más de lo que se crea.

4. Es el único cliente que no haya pagado su factura.

5. Es menester pues escribirle y apremiarle para que cumpla con su deber
(to fulfil his duty).

6. Antes que escriba V., repase sus libros para que no haya miedo de que haya ocurrido alguna equivocación (mistake).

7. Á menos que pague le citaremos ante los Tribunales (we shall summon him) de miedo que otros sean pagados con nuestro dinero.

8. Por más que V. diga, las medias, calcetines, y guantes no son iguales á las muestras que sirvieron de base (as a basis) al contrato.

9. Sin que V. me lo diga lo haré, salvo que intervenga algun contratiempo (any hitch should happen) y con tal que, ínterin (in the meantime) llegue su remesa.

10. Sea que llegue, sea que no, V. debería hacerlo aunque le fuese en ello todo su capital (all your capital were at stake).

11. Telefonee V. cuando quiera.

12. Celebrare lo haga luego que le sea posible.

13. Así como sepa algo le telefoneare.

14. Enviaría las zarazas si estuviese seguro que no me viniera (imp.
subj. of venir) después con quejas.

15. No creo que cueste muy cara esta seda.

16. No me parece que salio ventajosa aquella transacción.

EXERCISE 2 (48).

Translate into Spanish—

1. It is impossible for us to obtain the goods.

2. He spoke as if he were sure of it.

3. I may (es posible que) accept your price, provided you pay cash.

4. It is certain the white shirtings have shrunk too much in bleaching
(en el blanqueo).

5. He insisted until he paid him something and now he will continue to insist until he pays him something more.

6. The foreign correspondent (el corresponsal de lenguas extranjeras)
did his work so that his employer was satisfied.

7. Write clearly so that people may read your writing (su letra) without difficulty.

8. Whenever I spoke to him he was very polite, therefore, I shall put
(diré) a word in his favour whenever I can do so.

9. I reprimanded him notwithstanding that he was my son, and I shall do so whenever it is necessary in spite of his being now a man.

10. The first to come was the office-boy (muchacho, hortera [joc.]), and he will be the last to go (á salir).

11. The first firm that attempts it will burn its fingers (se cogerá los dedos).

12. He was the only one who understood us.

13. He is not the only one who is mistaken.

14. They will not be the only persons who will be mistaken.

15. Whoever succeeds in perfecting this contrivance will be sure to make
(es seguro que hará) a mint of money.

16. We shall be thankful if you will cancel our order for flax, hemp,
Manilla hemp and jute.

LESSON XXV.
(Lección vigésima quinta.)

THE TENSES.

The Tenses in Spanish being mostly used as in English, we shall only call attention to such of the principal differences between the two languages as have not yet been treated.

=Present—=

The English emphatic Present, "I do say," must be expressed by "Lo digo en efecto," "lo digo de veras," "lo digo sí."

"I do" with a verb understood after, as "Do you understand? I do" is translated by "Sí," "Sí, señor," or "Sí entiendo."

"Are you an engineer? Yes, I am"; "He is generous with me, and I am with him"; "He is my surety, and I am his"; must be translated by "Es V.
ingeniero? Sí, lo soy"; "Es generoso conmigo y yo lo soy con él"; "Él es mi fiador y yo lo soy suyo."

=Past—=

The English language has one form of Simple Past—I wrote.

In Spanish this is translated by—

Yo escribía (Imperf. Indic.) or

Yo escribí (Past Definite), according to sense.

It is most important to learn the difference between the Imperfect
Indicative and the Past Definite (or Preterite), because these two tenses admit of no compromise in Spanish.

The =Imperfect Indicative=[146] describes an action or state which was present when another past action took place, or another past state existed.

[Footnote 146: Or Descriptive Past.]

The =Past Definite= or =Preterite=[147] narrates an event.[148]

[Footnote 147: Or Narrating Past (this is why it is often called the
Historical Past).]

[Footnote 148: "Napoleon I died in 1821" is an event. "I fell" is grammatically also an event.]

Consequently, it will be understood that whilst the Past Def. refers to
"one point of time" or "several =separate= points of time," the
Imperfect embraces a whole indefinite period.

The following examples will show clearly the different functions of these two tenses—

Le escribí una vez (or dos o tres veces) mientras él viajaba en
Argentina: I wrote to him once (or two or three times) whilst he travelled[149] in Argentina.

[Footnote 149: Travelled—was travelling, but notice that in Spanish we would also have the progressive form—"estaba viajando."]

Encontré á Luis, quien llevaba levita negra: I met Louis, who wore[150]
a black frock-coat.

[Footnote 150: Wore—was wearing. Here in Spanish the progressive form
"estaba llevando" would not be admissible because there is no real progressive action.]

Hacía grandes negocios cuando residía en Chile: I had a large business when I resided in Chili.

Los Cartagineses eran un pueblo comercial y emprendedor: The
Carthagenians were a commercial and enterprising people.

Él estaba allí cuando yo llegué: He was there when I arrived.

Él leía al entrar yo en el bufete del abogado: He was reading when I entered the lawyer's office.

En Inglaterra trabajaba[151] ocho horas cada día: In England I worked
(used to work) eight hours a day.

[Footnote 151: As will be seen, the English "was" followed by a pres.
part. or the expression "used to be" may always be rendered by the
Spanish Imperfect, but the Spanish progressive form also exists:
"Estaba leyendo" (he was reading), and "used to" has its equivalent
"solía":—"Solía trabajar 8 horas" (he used to work 8 hours).]

Cada mes recibiamos nuestro sueldo: Each month we received (used to receive) our pay.

Ayer cerré el contrato: Yesterday I signed the contract.

Las pipas de vino resultaron averiadas: The casks of wine were damaged.

Trabajé en Inglaterra 5 años[152]; Viví dos años en Londres y tres en
Manchester: I worked 5 years in England; I lived two years in London and three in Manchester.

[Footnote 152: This is "a period of time," but it is definite.]

As will be seen in all the examples of the Imperfect, the action or state is described as "existing in the past."

VOCABULARY.

=abarrotado=, glutted, cram full
=acorazado=, iron-clad
=ajo=, garlic
=alerta=, on the alert, on the look out
=brisa=, breeze
=cebollas=, onions
=conducta=, conduct, behaviour
=contrabando=, contraband
=cosecha=, harvest, harvest-time, crop
*=dar en el clavo=, to hit it
=dátiles=, dates
=encogido=, shrivelled, shrunk
=fruta=, fruit
=granadas=, pomegranates
=guardias aduaneras=, custom house officials
=higos=, figs
=inmaturo=, verde, unripe
=limones=, lemons
=llevar=, to carry, to wear
=matute=, smuggling
=mirar=, to look
=moscatel=, muscatel grapes
=naranja=, orange
¡=ojo=! attention!
=olvidar=, to forget
=pasas de Corinto=, currants
=podrido=, rotten
=por decirlo así=, so to say, as it were
*=querer decir=, to mean
=recobrar=, to recover
=reprensible=, objectionable
=resumir=, to recapitulate, to state briefly
=sinnúmero=, a large number, innumerable
=travesía=, journey by sea

EXERCISE 1 (49).

Translate into English—

1. Cuando yo era más joven y me gustaba viajar, hacía la travesía de
Liverpool á Las Palmas todos los años.

2. Estuve allí la última vez en 1905 principalmente para recobrar mi salud, pero como viaje de negocios también tuvo muy buen éxito.

3. No había entonces como la hay hoy en día tanta competencia en ese comercio.

4. Cuando llegó el buque á La Coruña había un sinnúmero de guardias aduaneras alerta, pues se decía que llevaba muchos géneros de contrabando.

5. ¿Qué quiere decir género de matute?

6. De matute es lo mismo que de contrabando y matutero ó contrabandista es el que introduce tales géneros.

7. No sabía esta palabra antes, pero ya no la olvidaré.

8. ¿Ha aprendido V. bien la diferencia entre el preterito y el imperfecto?

9. Perfectamente y voy á resumírsela en dos palabras—El uno es pasado, pasado y nada más, el otro es un presente de lo pasado por decirlo así;
¡mire V.! "Encontré á Carlos": pasado absoluto; "Llevaba sombrero blanco"; pasado hoy, presente entonces; ¿qué le parece á V.?

10. Me parece que V. ha dado en el clavo y estoy satisfecho.

11. Y ahora ¡ojo! en la aplicación y ¡no olvidar!

EXERCISE 2 (50).

Translate into Spanish—

1. I believe his behaviour is most (muy) objectionable.

2. And I do also.

3. Did you receive the B/L for the cargo (cargamento) of oranges and grapes from Seville?

4. I did; and I expect a good parcel (partida) of muscatels from
Valencia as well.

5. Are these the lemons, onions and pomegranates you were expecting?

6. They are.

7. I am sorry they were delayed so long because now the market is glutted with fruit.

8. He is my friend and I am his.

9. We received this year three cargoes of bananas from the Canary
Islands (Islas Canarias). Six were consigned to us last year, but we used to receive many more when we sent our traveller in those islands at harvest time.

10. Ten thousand boxes of currants, 3,000 of figs, and 4,561 of dates were sold by auction.

11. There had not been such large quantities offered for a long time
(hacía mucho tiempo que).

12. The iron-clad "Achilles" left yesterday for Vigo. The sea was perfectly calm although a light breeze blew, or was blowing (soplaba not estaba soplando), from the S.W. (sudoeste).

13. The commission-agent (comisionista) went by the three o'clock train.

14. When I went to say good-bye to him (para despedirme de 61) he was writing (escribía or estaba escribiendo) a letter.

15. The cargo was examined and it was found that some of the fruit was unripe, some shrivelled or frost-bitten (tomada por la escarcha), and a parcel of garlic was rotten and had to be destroyed.

LESSON XXVI.
(Lección vigésima sexta.)

THE TENSES (contd.).

Uses of the Past Definite (or Preterite) and the Present Perfect (as: Yo he comprado: I have bought).

According to the English rule, the Past Def. (or Preterite) should be used to narrate events which happened in the past, in a period of time which does not include the present moment as—

Yo lo compre el ano pasado: I bought it last year.

The Present Perfect (called in Spanish Preterito Compuesto) should be used when the period of time includes the present moment, as—

He fletado muchos buques: I have chartered many ships.

By following this rule students will always be correct, but we must notice that in Spanish we find the "Preterito compuesto" often used instead of the Past Definite—

1. When the period, although entirely past, is not defined, as—

Le ha facturado la quincalla: He invoiced him the smallware.

2. When although entirely past and definite, it is very recent, as—Se lo he dicho hace un momento: I told him a moment ago.

N.B.—Plegue a Dios que el año que hoy empieza sea mas feliz que lo ha sido el pasado: May it please God that the year which commences to-day may be happier than the last has been (Grammar of the Academy).[153]

[Footnote 153: Here the Present Perfect is used in both languages, because the effects reach up to the present moment.]

The English Compound Past—"I had spoken"—is rendered by "yo había hablado" or "yo hube hablado."

"Yo había hablado" is in general use.

"Yo hube hablado" is used only after cuando, luego que, inmediatamente que; viz., when the action is represented as immediately preceding another.

N.B.—The Past Def. Simple may always take its place.

Cuando hube declarado mis intenciones, Cuando declaré mis intenciones, se convenció—When I declared my intentions, he was convinced.

The =Future Indicative=, (as well as the =Conditional Mood=) are used in
Spanish oftener than in English to denote probability, as—

Habrá 20 hombres aquí: I dare say there are 20 men here.

¿Le habré dado este derecho? Have I, perchance, given him this right?

¿Tendría miedo talvez? Was he afraid, perhaps?

The =Future Progressive=, is not used in Spanish when its place may be taken by the ordinary Future Simple, as—

Le escribire mañana: I shall be writing him to-morrow.

But—

Cuando él venga yo estare escribiendo: When he comes I shall be writing.

The =Present Subjunctive= in Spanish refers to time present or future; for time future, its place may be taken by the future Subj. (little used).[154]

[Footnote 154: Except after "cuando" (but not in conversation), as—Se lo diré cuando venga or cuando viniere: I shall tell it him when he comes. The Fut. Subj. is also used (not in conversation) after si instead of Pres. Indic., as—Le serviré si la ocasión se ofrece or se ofreciere: I shall serve him if the occasion presents itself.]

=Use of Tenses of the Subjunctive Mood=.

The verb in the Subj. Mood is put in the Present tense when the preceding verb is in the Pres. Indic., Future Indic. (simple) or
Imperative, as—

Quiero que él lo haga: I want him to do it.
Querré " " ": I shall want " ""
Quiere tú " " ": Want (thou) " ""

Otherwise the verb in the Subjunctive is in the Imperfect tense.

N.B.—When the preceding verb is in the "preterito compuesto," e.g., "he dicho," when "he dicho" stands exactly for the English "I have told," it governs the Pres. Subj., as—

Le he dicho que se vaya: I have told him to go.

But if it stands for the English "I told," it governs the Imperfect
Subj., as

Le dije (he dicho) que se fuese: I told him to go.

When the preceding verb is in the Future Perfect, the verb in the
Subjunctive may be put in the Present when its action does not refer to the past, as—

Habré querido que trabaje hoy o mañana: I shall have (may have) wanted him to work to-day or to-morrow.

VOCABULARY.

=*adquirir=, to acquire
=alquilar=, to rent, to hire, to take or give on lease
=arado=, plough
=boni cación, rebaja=, allowance
=cargar=, to charge
=ceder=, to yield, to sell, to cede, to warrant make over
=cédula de aduana=, custom house
=colmo=, climax, record
=color firme, sólido=, fast colour
=contrarrestar=, to check
=de otra manera=, otherwise
=desarrollar=, to develop
=empréstito=, loan
=época=, epoch, period, time
=explotar=, to exploit, to work
=igualar, hermanar=, to match
=*invertir=, to invest (money)
=justificar=, to justify, to warrant
=material rodante=, rolling stock (railway)
=no bien=, as soon a |
=pana (acordonada)=, cords (corduroy)
=perspectivas=, prospects
=piezas de repuesto=, spare pieces (machinery)
=puros, cigarros, tabacos=, cigars
=quinta=, villa
=rastrillos=, harrows
=rechazar=, to reject
=reja=, ploughshare
=revocar=, contramandar, to countermand
*=tener cuenta=, to pay, viz., to be advantageous
=terreno=, land
=traspaso=, goodwill
=trilladora=, threshing-machine

EXERCISE 1 (51).

Translate into English—

1. Le he dado ayer las Cédulas de Aduana.

2. Le hemos cedido el traspaso de aquel negocio por £500.

3. Le he dicho que los fondos (stocks), obligaciones, ú otros valores cualesquiera (whatsoever) han de depositarse en manos seguras.

4. Yo le había explicado que la Compañía se había constituído para comprar, alquilar (take on lease) ó adquirir de otra manera y explotar y desarrollar cualesquier minas ó terrenos metalíferos; pero no bien le hube anunciado (or le anuncié) que se trataba de terrenos situados en el Asia Menor, se rehusó á tomar las acciones que le había ofrecido.

5. Es que tendría sus razones.

6. Había unos cincuenta puros en aquella caja.

7. Deseo que V. invierta su dinero en esta empresa como deseaba el ano pasado que V. lo invirtiese en el Empréstito del Gobierno Austríaco
(Austrian).

8. Le diré que se apresure a despachar los arados con sus rejas y piezas de repuesto, los rastrillos, y las trilladoras.

9. Tal vez mi socio le habra dicho que lo haga.

10. Sí, le ha escrito ayer que no retardase el embarque pues hacen mucha falta, hemos excedido la época fijada para la entrega y no nos tendría cuenta que la Sociedad Agrícola nos los rechazara.

EXERCISE 2 (52).

Translate into Spanish—

1. We wrote them nothing to warrant such action.

2. I warranted him (garantizar) this would not be repeated.

3. The cloth was warranted fast colour.

4. He resorted to extreme means in order to bring about (llegar á) a solution of the difficulty.

5. In the past year the climax of prosperity was reached.

6. Large orders for railway rolling stock were countermanded on account of (á causa de) the feared political complications.

7. Velvet and Cord manufacturers have curtailed their production with a view (á fin de) to check the downward (á la baja) tendency of prices.

8. I matched his sample and I secured the order.

9. Did you hear from your traveller lately?

10. They charged us too much, we can buy on spot (en el mercado) much cheaper.

11. Spot cotton (el algodón disponible) was quoted yesterday one point higher than the day before, but futures declined (bajaron) 3/32

12. Perhaps there are better prospects of the growing crop (nueva cosecha) at present.

13. Do not be long (no tarde V.) in making up your mind (decidirse de)
one way or the other.

14. No, I shall soon decide what to do, but I must have a little time for reflection. I cannot bind myself on the spot (al punto).

15. Some of the prints have grease spots (manchas de aceite) and we must refuse to accept them unless under (a menos que nos haga) a reasonable allowance.

16. He has a villa in a delightful spot (sitio) in the country (campo).

LESSON XXVII.
(Lección vigesima séptima.)

THE AUXILIARY VERBS.

Tener and haber are used for the English "to have," followed by an infinitive, as—

Tienen que acabar el trabajo para fines de Enero: They have to finish the work for the end of January.

Hemos de seguir los consejos de los peritos en la materia: We have to follow the advice of those expert in the matter.

In such cases Tener is followed by que and Haber by de.[155] The former indicates compulsion or necessity, the latter a moral or self-imposed duty.

Haber de translates also "to be to,"[155] as—

¿Quién ha de hacer este viaje? Who is to go on this journey?

Tener de is used in threats—

Tengo de llevarlo ante el tribunal: I shall take him before the court.

"Tener que hacer, que escribir, que comer" and similar expressions translate also "to have something to do, to write, to eat," as—

Hoy tengo que hacer: To-day I have something to do, I am busy.

Tengo mucho que hacer: I have much to do.

Tenemos que comer por todo el día: We have something to eat which will suffice for the whole day.

Haber is used as a principal verb instead of Tener in—

Haber menester de algo: To need something.

He aquí el muchacho, etc.[156]: Here is the boy (behold the boy here, etc.).

Héme aquí or héteme[157] aquí, etc.: Here I am (behold me here, etc.).

It also survives in some legal phrases, as—

Fué habido el reo: The culprit was captured.

Los hijos habidos en su primera mujer: The children by his first wife.

And in some idioms, as—

Allá se las haya: That is his business.

Habérselas con uno: To dispute with anybody.

Tener translates the English "to be" in such phrases as—

Tener hambre, sed, sueño, calor, frío, vergüenza, and miedo: To be hungry, thirsty, sleepy, warm, cold, ashamed, and afraid.

Also speaking of age—

Tengo veinte años: I am twenty years old.

[Footnote 155: In all these cases deber may be used instead.]

[Footnote 156: He—imperative mood of haber.]

[Footnote 157: The te is the "ethical dative" (which is much more used in Spanish than in English).]

And in—

Tener razón: To be right.

And—

No tener razón or Dejar de tener razón: To be wrong.

We said that the past participle when used with Tener agrees with the direct object, as—

Tengo leídas las cartas: I have read the letters.

But when there is no direct object, of course the past participle remains invariable, as—

Tengo entendido que….[158]: I have heard that….

[Footnote 158: This use of tener for haber, especially with no direct obj. following is in general to be avoided; in this example, however, "tengo entendido," the phrase has more force than "he entendido." It implies that the mind is full with the effect of the communication.]

+—————————————————————————————————+
| =Conocer= (to know)[159] |
| (changes c into =zc= before a or o). |
+—————————————————————————————————+
|Pres. Indic., conozco. |
|Pres. Subj., conozca-as-a-amos-áis-an. |
+—————————————————————————————————+
| =Hacer= (to do or make). |
+——————————+——————————————————————-+
|Past Part., |Hecho. |
|Pres. Indic.,|Hago. |
|Past Def., |Hice, hiciste, hizo, hicimos, hicisteis, hicieron.|
|Fut. Indic., |Haré, harás, hará, haremos, haréis, harán. |
|Imp. Mood, |Haz, haced (reg.). |
+——————————+——————————————————————-+

[Footnote 159: Model verb for all those ending in cer or cir preceded by a vowel, except cocer (conj. like mover), mecer (reg.) and hacer. (Those ending in ducir are further irreg. in the
Past Definite.)

VOCABULARY.

=abrigar=, to shelter, to nourish (the hope)
=acciones preferentes=, preference shares
=agudo=, sharp, keen
=aplazar=, to postpone
=asistir=, to assist, to attend
=atendible=, plausible
=atrasado=, overdue
=caldos=, wines and oils (collectively)
=consabido=, in question, aforesaid
=cuenta de venta=, account sale
=dedicarse=, to devote oneself
=dejar sin efecto=, to cancel
=delicado de salud=, in indifferent health
=desfavorable, contrario=, unfavourable, adverse
=*deshacerse de=, to part with
=domicilio=, registered office of a company, also residence
=en este momento=, at the present moment
=ensayo=, trial, venture
=equidad=, fair dealing
=*haber menester=, to need
=indemnización=, indemnity
=junta de acreedores=, meeting of creditors
=liquidar=, to liquidate, to settle, to clear off goods, etc.
=mediería, artículos de punto=, hosiery
=pagaré=, promissory note, note of hand
=palacio=, palace
=plazo=, term
=respiro=, breath, breathing time, days of grace for payment, delay
=retirar=, to withdraw
(los) =reunidos=, those present
=*tener en cuenta=, to take into consideration
=trabajar, *ir, á porfía=, to vie with each other
=trámites de la ley=, legal means
=viaje de ida=, outward voyage
=viaje de vuelta=, inward voyage

EXERCISE 1 (53).

Translate into English—

1. Tengo que hacer hoy y no podré dedicarme á la correspondencia.

2. Si V. no quiere liquidar el consabido asunto tendré de apelar á los trámites de la ley.

3. V. no habrá menester de tanto pues abrigo las mejores intenciones y lo que pido es sólo unas pocas semanas de respiro.

4. He aquí pues lo que se ha de hacer, V. me firmará un pagaré para fin de Febrero y queda entendido que no concederé después ninguna extensión del plazo.

5. Si entonces V. no satisface su deuda mi abogado dará los pasos necesarios y V. será responsable de (liable for) los gastos y perjuicios habidos y por haber (damages accrued and to accrue).

6. La Compañía Nacional de Transportes (carriage) ha instalado su domicilio en el nuevo Palacio de la Libertad.

7. Dicha Sociedad tiene un capital de un millón de pesetas; la mitad en acciones preferentes y la mitad en ordinarias.

8. Se ha verificado la junta de acreedores del Sr…. á la cual no asistió el principal interesado por encontrarse delicado de salud.

9. Los reunidos han decidido aplazar dicha junta hasta el 20 del corriente.

10. Fundándose en atendibles razones nuestro corresponsal deja sin efecto el pedido que nos había confiado.

EXERCISE 2 (54).

Translate into Spanish—

1. We shall have to take in the hosiery although it is slightly (un poquito) overdue.

2. We have to give the example of fair dealing ourselves.

3. Who is to decide on the subject of the indemnity due to the captain of the ship?

4. If we want to withdraw the goods without producing (presentar) a B/L.
we shall have to sign an indemnity (indemnidad).

5. We have received the account sale for our wines and oils and regret the venture has not turned out as well as we expected.

6. We found a great difficulty in parting with our surplus (excesivas)
stock, of which we had to dispose (disponer) at prices very much reduced.

7. We are unable to inform you to what extent (hasta qué punto) you may calculate on (contar con) our remittance, as much will depend on circumstances over which we have no control (independientes de nuestra voluntad).

8. The rate (el tipo) of the insurance premium is 6/-per cent. on the outward and 5/-per cent. on the homeward voyage.

9. I very much question the advisability (dudo mucho la ventaja) of putting prices up at the present moment when so many adverse circumstances have to be taken into consideration.

10. As a matter of fact (en efecto) most of us (la mayor parte de nosotros) think it would be better to reduce them somewhat (algo) now that competition is so keen.

11. They vie with each other in cutting prices down (reducir) with the result that profits are ridiculously low (irrisorios).

LESSON XXVIII.
(Lección vigésima octava.)

THE ADVERBS.

Adverbs are used to modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.

The following are the principal Spanish adverbs—

Abajo (below)
Además (besides)
Adelante, delante (before, in point of place)
Ahora (now)
*Alrededor, *entorno (around)
Amenudo, á menudo (often)
*Antes (before, in point of time)
Antes, antes bien (rather)
Anoche (last night)
Anteanoche (the night before last)
Apenas, así que (as soon as)
Aquí, acá (here, hither)
Allí, allá (there, thither)
De aquí, de allí (hence, thence)
Aun, todavía (still, yet)
Ayer (yesterday)
Anteayer (the day before yesterday)
Bastante (sufficiently)
Bien (well)
*Cerca (near)
*Debajo (under)
*Por debajo (underneath)
Demasiado (too, too much)
*Dentro (within)
*Después (after, afterwards)
*Detrás (behind)
Donde[160] (where)
En breve (shortly)
*Encima (upon, above)
*Enfrente (opposite)
Entonces (then)
*Fuera (outside)
Hacia (towards)
Hacia adelante (forwards)
Hacia abajo (downwards)
Hasta (till, until)
Hoy (to-day)
*Junto (next)
*Lejos (far)
Luego (presently, soon, then)
Mañana (to-morrow)
Mal (badly)
Más (more)
Mejor (better)
Menos (less)
Mientras (whilst)
Mientras tanto (in the meantime)
Mucho (much)
Muy[161] (very)
Nunca, jamás (never)
Ni … ni … (neither … nor …)
Ni tampoco (not either)
Peor (worse)
Pronto (soon)
Tal vez, acaso, quizá, quizás (perhaps)
Tan, así (so)
Tanto (so much)
Tarde (late)
Temprano (early)
Ya[162] (already)

[Footnote 160: After verbs of motion also "á donde." After verbs of rest also "en donde."]

[Footnote 161: Used as in English, but always muy before a past part., as: Muy apreciado (much esteemed). Such phrases as "He is rich but not very" are translated "Es rico pero no mucho or tanto."]

[Footnote 162: Ya is also used for "now." "Ya no"—no longer.]

Those marked with an asterisk may govern a noun or pronoun through the preposition de with the exception of junto, which governs these words through á.

Adverbs may be formed from adjectives as in English.

The English termination ly is rendered by =mente= added to the feminine form of the adjective, when this changes for the feminine.

Adverbs are compared like the adjectives, but the superlative relative of adverbs is formed with lo más, and lo menos, as—

Es el más rico: He is the richest.

Esta adornado lo más ricamente posible: It is ornamented in the richest manner possible.

Es el menos exacto: He is the least exact.

Cotice lo menos que pueda: Quote the least you can.

Besides the primitive adverbs given in our list, there are many adverbial locutions—
á toda prisa (with all speed).
á la española (in the Spanish fashion).
á troche y moche, á trochimoche (in a slipshod way).
con blandura (gently).
de mala gana (unwillingly).
de vez (or de cuando) en cuando (from time to time).
tal cual vez (once in a while).
un si es, no es (ever so little).

When an adverb is followed by a verb in English que must be inserted in Spanish before a finite mood and de before an infinitive, as—

Después de venir (after coming).

Después que vino (after he came).

The phrases "I say so," " I think it is (so)," "I do not think so," are rendered "Digo que si" (or "lo digo"), "Creo que sí" (or "lo creo"),
"Creo que no" (or "no lo creo").

Some adjectives are used adverbially, as in English, without the addition of mente, as—

Vender barato, caro (to sell cheap, dear).

Hablar alto, bajo (to speak loud, low).

When two or more adverbs ending in mente occur in the same sentence, the termination is added only to the last, as—

Escribe clara,[163] concisa[163] y elegantemente: He writes clearly, concisely and elegantly.

[Footnote 163: Notice "clara" and "concisa" in the feminine.]

=Caer= (to fall).

Pres. Ind., Caigo — — — — — Pres. Subj., Caiga, caigas, caiga, caigamos, caigáis, caigan.

VOCABULARY.

=á duras penas=, with great difficulty
=á la larga=, m the long run
=á medida que=, in proportion as
=á mejor andar=, at best
=á plazos=, in instalments
=ajeno=, averse
=apagado= extinguished, dull (colours)
=*asentar=, to book (an order)
=chillones=, gaudy, screaming (colours)
=claro=, light (colours)
=claro y redondo= (quite clearly)
=columna=, column
=con el corazón en la mano=, quite candidly
=confeccionar=, to make up
=*confesar=, to confess
=conservas alimenticias=, preserves
=definir=, to define (also to settle)
=dificultad=, difficulty
=ensayo=, trial, proof, venture
=escoger=, to choose
=exceder=, to exceed
=facilidad=, ease, facility
=fijo=, fixed, firm
=fondos=, grounds (pictures, cloth)
=gana= (=de buena, de mala=), willingly, unwillingly
=ganga=, a bargain
=langosta=, lobster
=mariscos=, shell-fish
=muestrarios=, pattern cards, sets
=oscuro=, dark
=paquete=, packet, parcel
=*(no) poder menos de ..=., not to be able to help
=puntos=, points, spots (in prints)
=restos=, remnants
=sacar=, to pull out, to get out, to get back
=sardinas=, sardines
=satines brochados=, brocaded satins
=serie=, series
=sin mirar á gastos=, regardless of expense
=sobrio=, quiet (colour)
=solidez=, solidity
=tomar á mal=, to take amiss
=vivo=, vivid, bright (colours)

EXERCISE 1 (55).

Translate into English—

1. Tiene V. (there is) tanta variedad de dibujos que verdaderamente cuesta dificultad (it is difficult) el escoger entre diseños con flores, con puntos, con rayas, y cuadritos.

2. Con facilidad sin embargo (however) podrá V. hacer un surtido entre las dos series que le enviamos, de fondos claros y oscuros, y de colores vivos, chillones, sobrios, y apagados.

3. Desde algún tiempo á esta parte tratan Vs. los negocios tan á trochimoche que ya no sabemos á que atenernos (what to think of it).

4. Hago esta consignación de mala gana y le confieso claro y redondo que siguiendo V. á vender tan barato y á plazos tan largos no me tendrá cuenta hacerle otros envíos sino por su propia cuenta ó contra pedidos fijos de los clientes.

5. Clara y concisamente es como se deben escribir las cartas comerciales.

6. Á la par que Vs. (same as yourselves) no somos ajenos á la idea de hacer algún ensayo en la importación de langosta, mariscos, sardinas, y conservas alimenticias, pero debemos ir á medias en cualquiera transacción que se decida.

7. Creo que á duras penas sacará su dinero y á mejor andar tendrá que perder todo su trabajo.

8. Á medida que aumenten los ingresos se aumentarán los dividendos.

9. Recibirá V. en paquete asegurado los nuevos muestrarios que se han confeccionado sin mirar á gastos.

10. Estos restos son una verdadera ganga y además, podrá V. pagarlos al contado ó á plazos largos (easy) como más le convenga.

11. Dejaremos en suspenso su reclamo hasta definirlo personalmente en su próximo viaje á Inglaterra.

12. No puede menos de admitir (to admit) que á la larga esto no puede convenirme, y espero que V. no lo tome á mal que se lo exponga con el corazón en la mano.

EXERCISE 2 (56).

Translate into Spanish—

1. After writing you by last mail we are informed by the maker of the
Brown Linens (lienzos morenos) that he will be able to book your order which will be delivered before the end of next month.

2. The Brocaded Satins will range between (costarán desde) 4d. and 5d. a yard, and we shall ship them within six weeks but only after receiving your letter confirming them.

3. These shapes are not worn (gastan, llevan) outside England.

4. Not far from here and next to the Bank there is the Insurance Office, which is much admired for its solidity and fine appearance.

5. It cost £20,000 and they never thought it would exceed half that amount.

6. Perhaps it is too large an outlay (gasto) for the Company, but there was no money wasted.

7. The columns in the porch have cost so much because they are of the best Carrara marble (mármol).

8. Whilst we admit that the prints sent may have been just a little bit
(un si es no es) off shade (diferentes al color pedido) your claim is quite out of the question.

9. Towards the beginning of the autumn our Mr. So-and-So will make a trip (hará un viaje) to your place, and he will have the honour of waiting upon you (de visitarles) with our latest novelties (novedades).

10. You do not understand how it is possible that your neighbours are able to undersell you (vender más bajo que V.), nor can we make it out
(explicárnoslo) either.

LESSON XXIX.
(Lección vigésima nona.)

THE PREPOSITIONS.

Prepositions join words together to mark certain relations between them.

The principal prepositions are—

Á (at, to)
Ante (before—in point of place)
Bajo (under)
Con (with)
Contra, en contra de (against)
De (of, from)
Desde (since, from)
En (in)
Entre (between, among)
Hacia (towards)
Hasta (till, as far as, even)
Para (for the purpose of, for, in order to)
Por (for, by, because of)
Según (according to)
Sin (without)
Sobre (upon)
Tras, tras de (behind)
Para con (una persona),[164] (towards, with, a person)

[Footnote 164: "Fué muy generoso para conmigo": He was very generous with me.]

Many verbs take in Spanish a different preposition than in English. Some verbs take a preposition in one language and none in the other, as—

Depender de una promesa: To depend on a promise.
Convenir en una transacción: To agree to a compromise.
Confiar en un desconocido: To trust a perfect stranger.
Regalarle un cheque: To present him with a cheque.

The use of the correct preposition according to the verb it follows is best learnt by practice. In the second part of the grammar, the student will be helped with a list of the most characteristic differences between the two languages. The Spanish construction is not quite so rigid in this respect as is the English.

Difference between de and desde both translating "from"—=De= mark the origin only, as:

Esta seda viene de Italia: This silk comes from Italy—it is Italian silk.

=Desde= calls attention to distance of time or space, as—

Desde el 1° de Enero se estableció en comercio por cuenta propia: From the 1st of January, he started in business on his own account.

He viajado desde Londres hasta Calcuta en tantos días: I travelled from
London to Calcutta in so many days.

The chief difficulty in the employment of the Spanish prepositions is the use of Por and Para—

=Por= is used—

1. To denote agency = by[165]; as—

Es tenido en gran cuenta por sus amigos: He is thought much of by his friends.

Este establecimiento fué fundado por mi bisabuelo: This establishment was founded by my great-grandfather.

[Footnote 165: After the passive voice of verbs denoting mental action when formed by ser, Por is elegantly substituted by De, as: Son amados por or de sus padres (they are loved by their parents). But: Se aman por sus padres.]

2. To denote the motive of an action, as—

Lo hizo por envidia: He did it for (out of) envy.

3. To denote equivalency of any kind, as—

Cinco peniques por libra: Fivepence for a pound—per pound.

Trocar un producto por otro: To exchange one product for another.

Considerar á uno bueno por £1,000: To consider somebody as good for
£1,000.

Por mejor le envié yo como viajante: I sent you to travel, holding you for a better man.

Tienda por tienda, prefiero esta: Of the two shops I prefer this.

4. To denote distribution, as—

Vinieron cinco por cinco: They came five by five.

=Para= is used—

1. To denote the object of an action (generally "to" or "in order to"), as—

Trabajo para ganarme la vida: I work to (in order to) earn my living.

2. To denote destination (or direction), as—

El tren sale para Valencia: The train leaves for Valencia.

Esta cédula es para el Sr. Fulano: This warrant is for Mr. So-and-So.

Voy para casa: I am going towards home.

Many idiomatic uses of Por and Para must be learnt by practice.

VOCABULARY.

=abogar=, to plead
=acceder=, to accede
=afanarse=, to exert oneself, to take much trouble
=ahorrar=, to save
=ajuste=, adjustment
=á la verdad=, really
=altos hornos=, blast furnaces, foundries
=amarillo=, yellow, buff
=amistad=, friendship
=aparentar=, to show outwardly
=aprovecharse=, to take advantage of, to avail oneself
=aproximarse=, to approach, to draw near
=automóvil=, motor-car
=azadas=, hoes
=azadones=, pick-axes
=azuelas=, adzes
=bultos=, packages
=cizallas=, shears
=croquis=, sketch
=diseñador=, draughtsman
=*disponer=, to dispose, to arrange
=echar al correo=, to (throw into the) post
=empeoramiento=, deterioration
=en blanco=, blank
=estancia=, stay
=(un) fardín, un cuarto=, a farthing, a trifling amount
=*forzar=, to force, to strain
=hachuelas=, hatchets
=hilar=, to spin
=largo de talle=, full, complete
=lingotes de hierro=, pig-iron
=martillo=, hammer
=molestia=, trouble
=moratoria=, extension of time (for payment)
=palas=, shovels
=para= (=estar=), (to be) on the point of …
=picos=, picks
=plomo=, slate, lead colour
=por= (=estar por escribir=), to be (yet) unwritten
=previsión=, foresight
=los síntomas=, the symptoms
=suspender los pagos=, to stop payments
=tejer=, to weave
=tenazas=, tongs
=textil=, textile
=*trocar=, to barter, to exchange
=yerno, hijo político=, son-in-law

EXERCISE 1. (57)

Translate into English—

1. De España nos vienen las ricas uvas y las jugosas (juicy) naranjas, además de minerales—de hierro y cobre.

2. El viaje por mar desde España á Inglaterra tarda de cuatro á seis días.

3. Desde el año 1900 hasta el 1910 aumentó mucho la población del Reino
Unido.

4. Los Altos Hornos de Bilbao se han construido para la producción de lingotes de hierro.

5. La Sociedad reúne poderosos elementos (commands great resources) para la fabricación de toda clase de maquinaria para la hiladura y la tejeduría del algodón.

6. Los bultos se embarcaron directamente por los fabricantes mismos.

7. El empaque y el transporte cuestan lo mismo y precio por precio preferimos ahorrarnos molestias.

8. Por un falso sentido de honor aquella casa forzó su crédito para no tener que pedir moratorias, dando esto por resultado el empeoramiento de su posición.

9. Compré un automóvil por £1,000 mas lo troqué con este que vale á la verdad £1,500 dando sólo £200 por la diferencia.

10. Disponga V. las piezas tantas por parte.

11. Á una veintena por vez colocámos aquellos picos, palas, azadas, azadones, hachuelas, azuelas, martillos, cizallas, y tenazas.

12. Se presentó por su yerno, abogó por él por una hora larga de talle, todo por su hija, pues por el chico (young man, lit., child) maldita la gana que tendría (he would not have liked the idea) de afanarse tanto por él.

13. Haré por colocar sus driles blancos, plomo, y amarillos (buff) para los cuales me dió orden verbal su Sr. hijo durante su estancia aquí y que se despacharán por (or por la vía de) Burdeos y Cartagena.

14. Nuestro mercado sigue muy encalmado sin que por el momento presente síntomas de mejora.

15. La primera carta está para echarse al correo pero la segunda y la tercera quedan aun por escribir.

EXERCISE 2 (58).

Translate into Spanish—

1. He offers a loan to avoid all risk that the house should fall.

2. It would not be possible for it to fall unless the Textile Bank should stop payments.

3. His office is opposite ours and we have him thus under our eyes.

4. With all the weight of the evidence (las pruebas) you have collected
(recogido), it would be very risky to proceed against him from such a distance.

5. Between one thing and the other I did not know what to choose, so I left them to settle the matter between themselves.

6. These sketches have been made by our draughtsman for our customers, the owners of the Sugar Mill in Parahyba.

7. He did the work for the pleasure of it but would not (no quiso)
charge a farthing for it.

8. The packets arrived two by two.

9. I accede willingly for the sake of old friendship (por la antigua amistad que nos une).

10. As the time of the year is drawing near when your firms effect their purchases in this country, we beg to address you to renew the offer of our services.

11. We shall be extremely glad if you will avail yourselves of our offers and send us orders for some of your requirements.

12. The adjustment of the average per S.S. "Nile" is still hanging fire
(todavía pendiente), but we are pushing the Insurance Co. to our utmost
(todo lo posible) for a speedy settlement.

13. For a (para) foreigner he understands English methods very well indeed.

14. Being (por ser) so young he shows a good deal of (mucho) tact and foresight.

LESSON XXX.
(Lección trigésima.)

THE CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS.

Conjunctions join sentences together; also independent words.

The principal conjunctions are—

*Á menos que (unless)
Á pesar de (in spite of)
Así como (just as)
Así que, de suerte que (so that)
*Afín de que, *Para que (that—in order that)
Aunque, bien que, si bien (although, even if)
*Bien … bien (whether … or)
Como (as)
*Con tal que (provided)
Con que (so)
*Cuando (if)
Mas, pero, empero[166] (but)
Sino (but—after a negative[167])
Ni … ni (neither … nor)
No sea que* (lest, also perhaps)
No obstante (nevertheless)
Ó … ó[168] (either … or)
Ora … ora[168] (now … now—with indic. mood)
Porqué, porque (why, because)
Portanto (therefore)
Puesto que[169] (seeing that)
Pues (since)
Que (that)
Si (if, whether)
Sin embargo (however, notwithstanding)
Según (according)
Siquiera (at least, even)
Y[170] (and)
Ya … ya[171] (whether … or—with subj. mood)
Ya que (since, seeing that)

[Footnote 166: Empero is used same as pero at the beginning of a sentence.]

[Footnote 167: Unless a finite verb follows, as: No tengo dinero pero gozo de buena reputación (I have no money but I enjoy a good reputation).]

[Footnote 168: Before words commencing with o or ho, it changes into ú.]

[Footnote 169: In old Spanish it had the meaning of "even if."]

[Footnote 170: Before words commencing with i, also hi not followed by a vowel, use é, as: "Padre é hijo," but "Nieve y hielo."]

[Footnote 171: "Ora … ora" and "ya … ya" both mean "now … now"
(with indic. mood), and "whether … or" (with subj. mood).]

The conjunctions marked with an asterisk are always followed by a verb in the Subjunctive Mood.

The English "either" is generally left understood, as—

Exportaciones ó importaciones: Either exports or imports.

"Either" following a negative—tampoco, as—

No quiero comprar Títulos de Gobierno ni Obligaciones de Ferrocarriles tampoco: I do not wish to buy Government Stock, nor Railway Stocks either.

=Interjections=, being mere exclamations, do not stand in grammatical relation to any other word in the sentence.

They are elliptical sentences, as—

¡Oh! (I am surprised, etc.).

The principal Interjections in Spanish are the following—
caramba, cáspita (these express practically all kinds of emotions)
ay[172] (oh! grief or threat)
bah, ca, quiá (humph!)
ce, hola, ola (I say!)
chito, chitón (shut up!)
cuidado, ¡ojo! (attention! look out!)
ea (come!)
he (hey)
húy (oh! physical pain)
ojalá (oh, that)
por Dios (for heaven's sake)
tate, zape (what! (surprise))
tonterías (nonsense!)
uf (oh! weariness or fatigue)

[Footnote 172: This can govern a noun or pronoun, as—¡Ay de mí! Woe to me! ¡Ay de Pedro! Woe to Peter!]

As well as Ah or Ha, Oh or O as in English, and many words used as exclamations, as—

¡Silencio! ¡calle! ¡calle la boca (silence! hush! shut your mouth!)
¡vamos! (much used), (come! come now!)
¡que lástima! (what a pity!)
¡poco á poco! (gently, Sir!)
¡héteme[173] aquí! (here I am!)
¡hételos[173] aquí! (here they are, etc.)

[Footnote 173: Te—ethical dative.]

+—————————————————————————————————-+
| =Caber= (to be able to contain = to hold) |
| (to be able to be contained = to go in) |
|Pres. Indic., Quepo. |
|Past Def., Cupe, cupiste, cupo, cupimos, cupisteis, cupieron. |
|Fut. Indic., Cabré, cabrás, cabrá, cabremos, cabréis, cabrán. |
+———————-+—————————————————————————-+
| | =Poder= (to be able). |
|Pres. Part., | Pudiendo. |
|Pres. Indic.,| Puedo, puedes, puede, … pueden. |
|Imp. Mood, | NONE. |
|Past Def., | Pude, pudiste, pudo, pudimos, pudisteis, pudieron.|
|Fut. Indic., | Podré, podrás, podrá, podremos, podréis, podrán. |
+———————-+—————————————————————————-+

VOCABULARY.

=aficionado (á)=, fond of
=aflojar=, to relax
=ansioso=, eager
=*apetecer=, to desire, to covet
=bastante bien=, fairly well
=berzas, coles= (f.), cabbages
=buscar=, to look for, to search
=buscarse=, to bring upon oneself
=cauteloso, cauto=, cautious
=conexiones=, connections, couplings (machinery)
=contrincante=, neighbour, competitor
=detenidamente=, fully
=disturbado, transtornado=, disturbed, upset
=engranajes=, gearings
=escala=, scale
=hortelano=, fruit gardener
=inquilino=, tenant
=ir á=, to lead to
=llantas=, tyres
=*moler=, to grind
=operaciones=, operations, dealings
=perro=, dog
=plaza=, market place, square, place
=*poner al corriente=, to inform
=refrán=, proverb
=repentino=, sudden
=resortes=, springs (mach.)
=sosa=, soda
=tambores=, drums
=traspapelado=, mislaid (of papers)

EXERCISE 1 (59).

Translate into English—

1. Á menos que los giros vengan acompañados de los conocimientos y facturas comerciales y consulares (invoices and consular invoices) no los recogeremos.

2. Le remito poder en forma (regular power of attorney) para que V.
pueda representarme y hacer mis veces ahí.

3. Cuando me pague lo que me debe veremos lo que proceda hacer (what ought to be done).

4. V. no hace mención en su atenta de los engranajes, conexiones, llantas y resortes de nuestro pedido 2 del que rige, no sea que se haya traspapelado nuestra orden.

5. Para comprar barato no hay sino que pagar puntualmente sus facturas.

6. Aunque es hombre muy difícil de tratar, sus órdenes son muy apetecidas de los fabricantes porque su palabra una vez empenada
(pledged) es oro molido (as good as gold).

7. Aunque me pagara más no se lo daría pues ya tengo empeñada mi palabra.

8. Así como le vió le puso al corriente de las circunstancias.

9. Con tal que el mercado afloje un tantico procuraré plazar su orden para 50 tambores de sosa, á su límite.

10. Con que nuestros contrincantes se porten con lealtad no tenemos derecho de quejarnos de su competencia.

11. Según lo prueba la experiencia más vale ir cautelosos en aquellos mercados.

12. No deseo buscarme molestias ni meterme en camisa de once varas
(meddle in other people's business).

13. Hace como el perro del hortelano que no come las berzas ni las deja comer.

14. ¡Caramba! ¿Se viene V. con refranes en una gramática comercial?

15. ¡Calle, hombre! Todos los caminitos van á la plaza (all roads lead to Rome); los españoles son muy aficionados á los refranes.

EXERCISE 2 (60).

Translate into Spanish—

1. These 200 pieces will not go in that case, it is too small.

2. I do not think they will, either.

3. I cannot say anything before I see the result, but I shall be able to tell you something definite to-morrow.

4. Not being able to compete, he has withdrawn from the market.

5. I could not confirm the agreement last week.

6. I believe I could buy a parcel of wheat cheaper to-day unless there should be a sudden rise.

7. In spite of all his efforts, he was obliged to file his petition.

8. Although the market here is firm, we have hopes (esperamos) that prices will relax in view of the bearish tone (tendencia á la baja)
shown in the Liverpool market yesterday.

9. The enclosed pattern is rather (algo) poor; still, as it appears to sell well in Central Africa, I should be glad if you would see your way
(decidirse) to manufacture it at our price.

10. The new presses (prensas) work fairly well; there is, however, room
(lugar) for improvement, and our engineer will write you fully on some proposed modifications.

11. He signed the documents without even (siquiera) reading them, so upset was he by the news the mail had just brought him; therefore we shall be obliged if you will kindly send them back for his perusal and return (para que los examine y se los envíe otra vez).

12. Provided you take a lease of these premises (tome en arriendo este local) for a period of ten years, I shall make the necessary alterations, since I am very eager to have you as a tenant.

13. Although the demand for money is no longer so strong, the market is still under the control (dominio) of the Bank of England, to which it is now indebted for (debe) a considerable amount, and dealings are but on a comparatively small scale.

PART II

LESSON XXXI.
(Lección trigésima primera.)

THE ARTICLE.

The =Definite Article= is used in Spanish and not in English (besides rules given in Lesson II)—

1. Before the seasons of the year—

+————————————————————————+
|La primavera (spring) El otoño (autumn) |
|El verano (summer) El invierno (winter)|
| |
|And the four cardinal points: |
| |
|El norte (North) El este (East) |
|El sur (South) El oeste (West) |
+————————————————————————+

2. Before the hour of the day (with the words hora, horas, understood), as—

Es la una: It is one o'clock.
Son las dos y cuarto: It is a quarter past two.
Son las tres y cinco: It is five minutes past three.
Son las cuatro menos diez: It is ten minutes to four.
Las cinco y media: Half-past five.

3. Optionally, before the proper name of a woman used colloquially, as—

La Maria (Mary, our Mary).

4. Optionally, before the days of the week, especially when preceded by
"on" in English, as—

Vendré el sábado: I shall come on Saturday.

5. Before the names of the following countries—

El Perú, La India, El Japón.

And some towns to be learnt by practice, as—

La Coruña, El Havre, El Cairo, El Ferrol, etc.

Although found sometimes before the names of countries in general, this example should not be followed.

The Definite Article is used in English and not in Spanish—

1. Before numbers following names of sovereigns, etc., as—

Carlos I (primero), Charles I (the first)
Alfonso XIII (trece), Alphonso XIII (the thirteenth)

2. In titles of books, headings, etc., as—Historia de la Inquisición
(The History of the Inquisition).

3. Before words in apposition, as—Madrid, capital de España (Madrid, the capital of Spain).

But—

Alfonso el Sabio (Alphonso the Wise)
Juana la Loca (Jane the Mad)
because these are "titles."

The =Indefinite Article= is used in English and not in Spanish
(besides rules in Lesson II)—

1. Before words in apposition, as—
Rubio y Cía., casa importantísima de la Habana: Rubio
& Co., a most important firm in Havana.

2. In titles of books, headings, etc., as—
Lista de los géneros pedidos: A list of goods required.

3. In "such a," "so … a," as—
Tal amigo: Such a friend.
Tan buen amigo: So good a friend, such a good friend.

4. In "a half" (medio), "a quarter" (cuarto), "a third"
(tercio), in the case of an integer preceding, as—
Uno y medio (1-1/2) Cinco y tercio (penknife/3)
Dos y cuarto (2-1/4)

Occasionally the article is omitted before other fractions.

5. Before otro, as—
Otra quiebra: Another bankruptcy.

Before weights and measures the definite article is used in Spanish instead of the indefinite used in English, as—

Dos chelines la libra: Two shillings a pound.
Cinco pesetas el metro or por metro: 5 pesetas a metre.

The =Definite Article= is omitted before casa and palacio when they are spoken of as places usually frequented by the person in question—

Iré á casa del ingeniero: I shall go to the engineer's house.
El Rey volvió ayer a palacio: The King returned yesterday to the palace.

The article must not be employed before a noun used after a preposition in an adjectival capacity, as—

Una viga de hierro (not del hierro): An iron beam.

The tendency of the Spanish language is to omit the indefinite article whenever, by such omission the sense is not obscure, as—

Tengo intención de marcharme: I have a mind to go.
Vino con dolor de cabeza: He came with a headache.
Le dió cuenta de lo sucedido: He gave him an account of
all that had happened.
Este caballero tiene mucho or grande ingenio: This
gentleman has a great talent.

The =Neuter= article lo cannot precede a noun used as such, but it may (elegantly) precede a noun used adjectively, as—

Todo me gusta en el, lo amigo, lo ciudadano, lo caballero:

I like everything in him: the friend, the citizen, the gentleman.

VOCABULARY.

administrador, manager anteriormente, previously anunciar, to advertise apacible, mild armadura, frame, framing (mach.)
atajo, short cut buen éxito, success comprometerse, to undertake edificio, building empresa, undertaking experimentar, to experience grabados (géneros), embossed (goods)
hilado, yarn intentar,*tener intención, to intend junto á, coupled with práctico, practical
*proponerse, to have in view
(á) rayas, striped (goods)
recto, straightforward riqueza, wealth sencillo, plain suceder, to succeed, to happen tenedores, holders (of securities, etc.)
tratar, to conduct (business)
vara, Spanish yard.

EXERCISE 1 (61).

Translate into English—

1. Eran las doce y media del domingo antepasado (before last), apacible dia, que, aunque estamos en otoño, parecía mas dia de primavera, la
Maria me acompañaba, aquella Señora del Perú que ha viajado tanto en la
India y el Japón y cuyo marido y el mio eran tan amigos.

2. Íbamos a casa de la Señora.

3. La Coruña es ciudad de Galicia.

4. Carlos V., Emperador de Alemania es el mismo monarca que reinó en
España con el título de Carlos I desde 1517 á 1551.

5. Luis XIV de Francia no tenía sino cinco años de edad cuando sucedió á su padre Luis XIII en 1643.

6. El principio de su reinado fué dirigido por Mazarín, italiano muy fino (shrewd), y astuto conocedor de los hombres.

7. ¿Qué dice ese papel?

8. Lista de los accesorios que se dan con cada máquina.

9. Tan ventajosas condiciones no se hallan en ningunas otras Compañias para el seguro de la vida.

10. Tales administradores, valen un tesoro (are worth their weight in gold); de ellos depende el buen éxito de las empresas.

11. Otro dependiente como el Sr. Arboleda no lo hallarán entre mil.

12. Estos cuadritos y rayas cuestan 45 céntimos el metro, y estos mercerizados y grabados valen 40 céntimos la vara.

13. ¿Qué es la vara?

14. Es medida española que equivale á =835= milimetros y 9 décimas ó cerca de =33= pulgadas inglesas.

EXERCISE 2 (62).

Translate into Spanish—

1. An "iron framing" is a framing made of iron, but a "steam engine"
(máquina a vapor) is an engine moved by steam.

2. I had the intention of giving more such examples but I believe one is enough.

3. In the construction of this building the architect had in view both the beautiful and the practical.

4. Yes, see how (cuán) elegant and at the same time how solid these columns are!

5. Business conducted through us (por nuestro medio) is different from the many advertised systems and promised short cuts to wealth which are dangled before the eyes of the (con que se deslumbra al) public.

6. Our plan is a plain (sencillo), straightforward method of operating by which we undertake to implicitly carry out (cumplir con) the instructions of our customers.

7. Our best advice and service are always at your command (a su disposición).

8. "Kaffirs" have resorted to (han llegado) a state of idleness
(inercia) coupled with steadily (más y más) sagging (aflojados) prices.

9. Holders of spot cotton have again experienced quite a brisk inquiry
(una demanda muy activa) from spinners, who have freely (abundantemente)
covered forward sales (para sus entregas futuras) of yarn.

10. They also took up large lines (grandes cantidades) of cotton previously contracted for (contratadas).

11. The total turnover (las ventas totales) was not quite as good as expected.

LESSON XXXII.
(Lección trigéima segunda.)

THE NOUN.

1. The gender of names of countries, provinces, and towns is according to their termination (Lesson III), but those ending in d are generally masculine.

Exceptions are found, the names "ciudad" or "pueblo" being then understood.

2. Names of trees are masculine, those of fruits are feminine.

EXCEPTIONS—

+————————————————+——————————————+
|La higuera (the fig-tree) |El melocotón (the peach) |
|La palma (the palm-tree) |El albérchigo (the peach) |
|La viña (the vine-tree) |El durazno (the apricot) |
|El dátil (the date) |El albaricoque (the apricot)|
|El pistacho (the pistachio-nut) |El mango (the mango) |
|El higo (the fig) | |
+————————————————+——————————————+

And a few more.

3. A masculine article is used with other parts of speech whole sentences used substantively, as—

Quiero un sí ó un no claro: I want a clear (decisive) yes or no.

El aprender es útil: Learning is useful.

El que lo haya hecho sin consultarme no puede serme de grande gusto:
That he did it without consulting me is certainly not pleasing to me.

A list of principal exceptions to the rule given on Spanish gender by termination is given in Appendix I.

To the rules for the formation of the plural (Lesson III) we shall add—

1. Family names ending in z unstressed do not change—

Juan Fernández But—El Sr. Ruiz
Los Señores Fernández Los Señores Ruices

2. The names of the vowels pluralize in es—
Las aes, las ees, las íes, las oes, las úes.

3. Some Latin words used in Spanish, as—Accessit, déficit, fiat, ultimatum, agnus dei, etc., do not change for the plural, except—Album—álbumes.

For other peculiarities of number see Appendix II. Collective nouns in
Spanish are generally followed by the verb in the singular, as—La gente piensa: People think.

But after a collective noun, indefinite in its meaning, the verb may follow in the plural, as—Una cantidad de géneros se vendió, or vendieron en subasta: A quantity of goods was or were sold by auction.

N.B.—The tendency of the language is in favour of the singular.

=Poner= (to put, to place).

Past Part., Puesto. Pres. Indic., Pongo.[174] Imper. Mood, Pon … poned …[175] Past Def., Puse, pusiste, puso, pusimos, pusisteis, pusieron. Future Indic., Pondré, pondras, pondrá, pondremos, pondéis, pondrán.

=Querer= (to want a thing or person, to love a person, to be willing).

Pres. Indic., Quiero, quieres, quiere,—,—, quieren. [176] Past Def., Quise, quisiste, quiso, quisimos, quisisteis, quisieron.
_Fut. Indic., _Querré, querrás, querrá, querremos, querréis, querrán.

[Footnote 174: Verbs which are irregular in the Pres. Indic. 1st person singular only, have the same irregularity in the present subj. all through.]

[Footnote 175: The 1st person pi. and 3rd pers. sing. and pl. of the
Imperative Mood are taken from the Subj. Mood.]

[Footnote 176: Verbs which in the pres. indic. are irregular in the 1st,
2nd and 3rd pers. sing. and 3rd pers. pl. have the same irregularities in the pres. subj. in the same persons.]

=Saber= (to know).

_Pres. Indic., _Sé, . . .
_Pres. Subj., _Sepa, sepas, sepa, sepamos, sepáis, sepan.
_Past Def., _Supe, supiste, supo, supimos, supisteis, supieron.
_Fut. Indic., _Sabré, sabrás, sabrá, sabremos, sabréis, sabrán.

VOCABULARY.

=apuro=, straits, embarrassment
=armas blancas=, side arms
=armas de fuego=, fire-arms
=*atravesar=, to traverse, to cross
=campos=, fields
=cierre=, lock-out
=compensar=, to compensate, to make good
=*darse a partido=, to yield, to submit
=disturbio=, disturbance
=enfurecido, furioso=, furious (enfuriated)
=enseñanza=, teaching
=*escarmentar=, to take warning
=fracaso=, failure
=la fuente=, the fountain, source
=fuerza motriz=, motive power
=fundarse en=, to base upon
=huelga=, strike (of workmen)
=huerta=, orchard
=infinidad (una)=, an infinite number
=interior=, interior, inland
=limitar=, to confine, to limit
=mejorar=, to improve
=minero=, miner
=obrero=, workman
=orillas=, banks of a river
=palmera=, date palm
=población=, villa, town
=póliza de seguro=, insurance policy
=prescindir de=, to dispense with
=regadío=, irrigation
=rieles=, rails
=tal cual= (of goods), as they are, as they were
=tomar en consideración=, to take into consideration, to entertain
=turba=, crowd (motley)
=virtualmente=, practically, virtually

EXERCISE 1 (63).

Translate into English—

1. La palmera., el pistacho, y la higuera crecen en Andalucía pero los dátiles, los pistachos y los higos que se venden en el mercado inglés provienen principalmente de Berberia, de Grecia y Esmirna (Smyrna).

2. En los recientes disturbios en la provincia de Champaña muchas viñas se han destruido por las turbas enfurecidas.

3. Explíqueme V. el cómo y el cuando del asunto (all about the affair) y luego (then) considerare yo el pro y el contra.

4. Á mi no me importa el que dirán (what people will say).

5. La industria del hierro es una de las principales fuentes de riqueza del Reino Unido.

6. Las máquinas de toda especie, los buques de vapor, los rieles de ferrocarriles, las herramientas mecánicas y agrícolas, las armas blancas y de fuego y una infinidad de otros objetos se deben á esa industria.

7. En el norte de Espana, especialmente en Bilbao se trabaja el hierro en grande escala.

8. El río que atraviesa dicha población presta (gives) fuerza motriz á varias fábricas situadas en sus orillas, y sirve también al regadío de los campos y huertas.

9. Escarmentados por el fracaso de la huelga de los mineros, los obreros hiladores se dieron á partido admitiendo las condiciones ofrecidas por los patronos, evitando así el cierre.

10. Patronos y obreros deberían trabajar armoniosamente y fundados en la justicia; el capital y el trabajo no pueden prescindir el uno del otro.

EXERCISE 2 (64).

Translate into Spanish—

1. The steamer ran aground on the Spanish coast but the crew were saved.

2. People are apt to forget (se olvida facilmente de) the teachings of history (historia).

3. His action has put me in a serious embarrassment.

4. I put it as a condition that the bills be drawn against delivery of
B/L and insurance policy.

5. They placed all their trust in their agent.

6. I do not mean to say that they wanted to deceive him.

7. When prices improve we shall be willing (estaremos dispuestos) to sell.

8. I do not know what effect this had on the market.

9. If I knew, I should be able to act accordingly (de conformidad).

10. I do not think he knows (subj.) what suits him best.

11. The Directors are not in the least (absolutamente) disposed to launch upon (lanzarse a) a large foreign trade, so that the operations of the concern (compañía or casa) remain confined practically to the inland market.

12. We received a claim on our last shipment but we refused to
(rehusamos de) entertain it as the goods were jobs (géneros imperfectos)
and were sold as they were with all faults (imperfecciones).

13. We are sorry our customers should have suffered any loss, but we cannot make it good, and we shall stand our ground (insistiremos en eso).

LESSON XXXIII.
(Lección trigésima tercera.)

AUGMENTATIVE AND DIMINUTIVE TERMINATIONS

(see also Appendix IV).

Examples in English—

Ball, balloon
Book, booklet
Lad, laddie
Man, manikin

These terminations are frequent in Spanish, especially the diminutive.

On (m.), ona (f.)[177] denote augmentation, as—

Libro, book
Librón, large book

[Footnote 177: Feminine nouns, however, generally take =on= and become masculine, as—

Un mujerón: A tall woman.
Except when ambiguity might arise, as:

Un muchachón: A tall or big boy Una muchachona: A tall or big girl.]

ito (m.), ita (f.), ico (m.), ica (f.)

Denote diminution (to which an idea of endearment is always attached which is natural in Spanish when speaking of little objects in the ordinary way.)

If for any reason disparagement or insignificance is suggested then illo, illa, uelo, uela, are used instead.

Other terminations less used are azo, acho, onazo, achón, ote, astro, aco, and a few others (augmentative, suggesting (generally)
disparagement); ete, in, ino, itito, itico, itillo, and a few others
(diminutive). If a noun ends in a vowel, this is elided[178] before adding the termination.

[Footnote 178: If a noun ends in n (except proper names like "Juan")
or r, ito, ico, illo, uelo, change into =cito, cico, cillo, zuelo=. If a noun of one syllable ends in a consonant, or a noun of two syllables ends in e or ío, or contains a diphthong, ito, ico, etc., change into =ecito, ecico=, etc. If a noun of one syllable ends in a vowel, ito, ico, etc., become =ececito, ececico=, etc. Other slight changes occur also.]

The Augmentative and Diminutive terminations have no determinate meaning: they are vague and indefinite and consequently when preciseness is required we must use the adjectives "grande," "pequeño," etc. (which can be employed conjointly with the terminations), as—

Me dió dos librones gruesos y tres libritos delgados: He gave me two heavy big books and three small ones.

Students should use the terminations on and ito but no others until they become familiar with them with reading, as they cannot be used indiscriminately with all nouns.

The termination azo serves also to indicate an injury or explosion from a weapon, as—

Un sablazo (a sabre-cut)
Un puñetazo (a blow with the fist)
Un navajazo (a stab with a knife)
Un cañonazo (a cannon-shot)

With some weapons some other terminations are used—

Una cuchillada (same as navajazo)
Una paliza (a thrashing with a stick)

=Traer= (to bring).

Pres. Part., Trayendo (i unstressed between two vowels always changes into y). Pres. Indic., Traigo. Past Def., Traje, trajiste, trajo, trajimos, trajisteis, trajeron.

VOCABULARY.

=actitud=, actitude
=agiotista=, stock-jobber
=alejarse=, to go away
=aludir á=, to allude, to hint
=apurado de dinero=, short of money
=apurar=, to purify, to exhaust
=calcular=, to calculate, to reckon
=callar=, to keep silent, to omit speaking
=cambiar=, to change, to alter
=consignar=, to consign, to record
=contrato social=, articles of partnership
=cordobán=, morocco leather
=despacio=, slowly
=despreciable=, despicable
=dinero efectivo=, cash
=discutir=, to discuss
=especulación=, speculation, venture
=garrote=, cudgel, stick
=*impedir=, to hinder, to preclude
=ladrón=, thief
=(el) matiz=, shade
=*mover=, to move, to actuate
=mozalbete=, beardless youth
=*quebrantamiento=, breakage, break down
=reflejo=, reflection
=*seguir=, to pursue
=sin ton ni son=, without rhyme or reason
=sombrero de copa=, silk hat
=vejete=, diminutive old man
=vocablo=, vocable, word

EXERCISE 1 (65).

Translate into English—

1. El agiotista que V. ve allí, aquel hombrón con el sombrerote de copa, ha hecho un fortunazo en sus especulaciones bursátiles (stock exchange speculations).

2. Aquel vejete que le acompaña con ese mozalbete su hijo me ha vendido una partidilla de Cordobán muy baratita.

3. Librazo, libraco, librote, libracho son todos variaciones de "libro,"
como también librito, librillo, libreto, librete, libretín, librejo que son sus formas diminutivas.

4. Libreta es diminutive de "libra"; se usa también por pan de una libra; "libreto" es el de una ópera; el cuadernito de papel de fumar es
"librillo."

5. Estas graduaciones ó matices del sentido se deben aprender con la práctica y se deben usar naturalmente sin afectación como reflejo del profundo conocimiento de la lengua, y no copiados de un diccionario "sin ton ni son" como se dice en español.

6. Por ejemplo, "librazo, libracho, y librote" se refieren más al aspecto del libro. "Libracos" mas a los despreciables por su contenido.

7. También se debe notar que algunas terminaciones convienen á ciertos vocablos y á otros no, por ejemplo hay "libraco" y "pajarraco" pero esta terminación no puede tomarla el sustantivo "hombre."

8. En fin con lo dicho y con lo consignado en el apéndice IV el estudiante tiene bastante por ahora.

9. Con la República en Portugal acabadita de proclamar, nos vemos apuradillos de dinero pues los clientes portugueses van despacito en sus remesas.

10. Callandito se vino el ladronzuelo y se alejó sin ser visto.

11. Cuchilladas, pistolazos, revolveradas, y aún garrotazos son raros en
Inglaterra; el Inglés se bate a puñetazo limpio (with his fist) cuando es de la hampa (a rough), y cuando es caballero no se bate aunque si llega el caso es muy capaz de dar muy buena cuenta de sí.

EXERCISE 2 (66).

Translate into Spanish—

1. If you cannot command (no puede disponer de) cash, we shall have to alter our price lists as our prices will have to be reckoned on a different basis; they will be a little dearer.

2. I am bound to say that there is some very strong opinion on this side
(de este lado) against the course your Government intends to pursue in the matter.

3. The situation has been complicated by the breakdown of the arrangement we had made with our carriers (agentes de transporte).

4. I believe that the reason actuating Mr. Melero's attitude (mueve al
Sr. M. en su) towards us, a reason which he hinted more than once in his correspondence, is that his articles of partnership with his friends in
Rosario preclude him from entertaining (tomar en consideración) any new ventures.

5. At the monthly meeting of the Council of the Chamber of Commerce
(Consejo de la Cámara de Comercio) the Japanese tariff was discussed on a (tras) communication from the Board of Trade ("Board of Trade,"
Ministerio de Comercio).

LESSON XXXIV.
(Lección trigésima cuarta.)

THE ADJECTIVE.

The position of qualifying adjectives is generally after the noun, especially

1. Those denoting physical qualities, as—

Un hombre ciego: A blind man.
Una mesa redonda: A round table.
Paño negro: Black cloth.

2. Those denoting nationality, as—

Quincalla inglesa: British hardware.

3. Those derived from verbs, as—

Mercancía averiada: Damaged goods.

The above rule is subject to many exceptions for the sake of euphony or to give more than the ordinary prominence to the adjective or the noun; however, the following rule will be found a reliable general one, and it is in fact the informing principle of all special rules given in the various grammars—

An adjective used as an epithet should precede the noun; if used as a distinguishing word it should follow.

By an adjective used as an epithet, we mean one calling to mind a quality known (or supposed) to belong to the noun, as—

No perdió el aliento el valiente general: The brave general did not lose courage.

By a distinguishing word we mean one used to indicate the quality of a noun as compared with another of the same species, as—

Quiero comprar maquinaria barata: I wish to buy cheap machinery.

The Partitive Adjectives "some" and "any" are left out in translation when they do not convey the idea of limited quantity. When they do,
"algún," "un poco de" (sing.), "algunos" and "unos" (pl.) are used.

"Un poco de" and "unos" convey the idea of a more limited quantity or number than "alguno" and "algunos."

The following few examples are calculated to make it clear as regards the various shades of meaning—

¿Tiene V. alfombras? Have you any carpets?

Tengo algún azúcar para vender: I have some sugar to sell.

¿Quiere V. un poco de papel? Will you have some paper?

Yo tengo algunas obligaciones: I have some debentures.

He recibido algunos cigarros, le reservaré unas cajas de los mejores: I received some cigars; I shall reserve for you some boxes of the best quality.

One adjective preceding two or more nouns agrees in gender and number with the first only, as—

La nueva caldera y accesorios gustó (or gustaron) mucho al cliente:
The new boiler and accessories pleased the customer very much.

N.B.—If a verb intervenes the adjective is generally plural, and in case of different genders is pl. masc., as—

Adjuntos remitimos factura y conocimiento: Enclosed we send invoice and bill of lading.

When the adjective follows two or more nouns, it is put in the plural, as—

El trigo y el maíz están sostenidos: Wheat and maize are firm.

If the nouns are of different genders, the adjective is pl. masc., as—

El encaje y las guarniciones han salido caros: The lace and trimmings came out dear.

EXCEPTION—

When all the several nouns preceding the adjective are in the plural, and all referring to things (not persons), the adjective may be made to agree in gender with the noun last mentioned, as—

Los tornillos y las tuercas están bien ajustados (or ajustadas): The screws and nuts are well adjusted. It is better to avoid this construction

(1) By saying "las tuercas y los tornillos están bien ajustados."

(2) By using an adjective having the same termination for masculine and feminine.

(3) By giving a different turn to the sentence, as: "Son de buen ajuste".

Adjectives that qualify the fem. nada (nothing) are always used in the masculine—

Nada bueno espero de él: I expect nothing good from him.

Adjectives referring to titles of individuals are placed in the gender of the persons bearing those titles, as—

V. (contraction of Vuestra Merced) es muy buen amigo: You are a very good friend.

Adjectives of colour derived from a noun, as "violeta" (violet), "rosa"
(pink), "chocolate" (chocolate), etc., do not take the mark of the plural, the words "color de" being understood before them, as—

Guantes crema: Cream gloves.

=Valer= (to be worth).

Pres. Indic., Valgo. Fut. Indic., Valdré, valdrás, valdrá, valdremos, valdréis, valdrán. Imper. Mood, Val or vale….

VOCABULARY.

=aceite=, oil
=aflojar=, to slacken
=ajuste de averia=, average adjustment
=almacenes fiscales=, bonded ware houses
=carne en salmuera=, pickled beef
=comarca=, region
=conceder=, to grant, to allow
=cosecha=, crop, harvest
=cueros=, hides
=exiguo=, small, insignificant, slender
=incluir=, to include, to enclose
=incluso=, included
=incluyendo=, including
=íntegro=, upright, integer, whole
=interino=, interim
=juicioso=, sensible
=linones, olanes=, lawns
=manteca de puerco, lardo=, lard
=pieles=, skins
=productos accesorios=, by-products
=sebo=, tallow
=tarjeta=, card
=tasajo=, jerked beef
=tierno=, tender
=viajante=, commercial traveller[179]

[Footnote 179: Traveller (passenger, tourist)—Viajero.]

EXERCISE 1 (67).

Translate into English—

1. Benéficas lluvias han caído en toda la comarca, y las tiernas plantas prometen abundante cosecha si siguen favorables las condiciones climatológicas (climatic).

2. Las compras baratas no resultan siempre lo que se llama "gangas"
(bargains) pues es necesario también que sean de calidad conveniente y adecuada para el mercado á que se las destine.

3. He recibido una consignación de carne en salmuera, lenguas en latas
(canned tongues), tasajo, sebo, margarina, manteca de puerco (or lardo), y productos accesorios que espero poder colocar bien.

4. Me enviaron también un poco de aceite de margarina, heces de sebo
(tallow greaves), hueso molido (bone-meal) y tripas de buey (ox casings)
baratas.

5. ¿Ha vendido V. algo de estas?

6. No, pero he vendido un poco de sebo.

7. ¿ No ha recibido V. cueros y pieles?

8. No, estos no pertenecen á mi ramo de negocios (line of business).

9. Ha entrado mucho té este mes en los almacenes fiscales y además algún café de Costa Rica.

10. La magnífica colección de muestras y tarjetas para reclamo
(advertisement) que nos trajo ese viajante nos han gustado muchísimo.

11. El ajuste de avería y el cheque por la indemnización concedida van inclusos.

12. Tanto los provechos como las pérdidas son exiguos (or exiguas).

13. No hay nada (de) extraordinario en que afloje el mercado.

14. V. es hombre integro y su Señora es mujer juiciosa.

15. Le tomaré algunas piezas de prueba de estos linones rosa y crema pero nada de estos estampados chocolate.

EXERCISE 2 (68).

Translate into Spanish—

1. We have to acknowledge the receipt of your esteemed letter of the 1st inst., which brought us £640 on L. & Sons, payable August 10th.

2. Carried forward (á la vuelta). Brought forward (de la vuelta).

3. Brown sugars have been rather brisk for some time (desde algún tiempo).

4. The manufacturer has discontinued making the old article.

5. The Directors of the Z Company announce an interim (provisorio)
dividend for the first six months of the current year at the rate of 10 per cent. per annum.

6. Reuter's Paris correspondent telegraphs that earnest representations are being made by the British Chamber of Commerce in Paris to the French
Customs Administration (Administración de Aduanas) concerning the recent change in the classification of yarns wound on bobbins (en bobinas), a matter which seriously affects Lancashire interests.

7. The great object (objeto principal) the meeting had in view was the promotion of further (el abrir nuevas vías al) progress and (y á la)
civilisation. That necessarily implied fewer appeals to the arbitrament of the sword (que deberían disminuir los casos de apelar á la espada)
and (y ser) more frequent appeals to the remedy of reason.

LESSON XXXV.
(Lección trigésima quinta.)

THE ADJECTIVE (contd.).

=Degrees of Comparison=.

"As … as" and "so … as" are translated "tan … como," "as much …
as" and "so much … as" are translated "tanto-a,-os-as … como" or
"cuanto."

N.B.—Cuan may be used instead of como before an adjective as—

Tan razonable en precio cuan apreciado por la buena calidad: As reasonable in price as it is appreciated for its good quality.

"The more … the more" is translated "cuanto más … tanto más"; also
"más … más" (without the article).

"Than whom," "than which" is translated as follows—

Sedas floreadas italianas que no las hay mejores en el mercado: Italian flowered silks, than which there are no better on the market.

Adjectives ending in io (not ío) drop the whole diphthong before adding ísimo, as—

Amplio—Amplísimo (very ample).

EXCEPT Agrio—Agriísimo (very sour).

Those ending in z change of course the z into c, as—

Feliz—felicísimo[180] (very happy).

[Footnote 180: Z should not occur before e and i in modern Spanish.]

The irregular superlatives óptimo, pésimo, máximo, mínimo, ínfimo and supremo are used very sparingly, but they are found both as superlative absolute and superlative relative, as—

Esta es una cantidad ínfima: It is an infinitesimal amount.

El precio mínimo[181]: The minimum price.

[Footnote 181: Although improperly, we often find "más mínimo" (más ínfimo, etc.).]

El supremo bien de la vida es hacer á otros felices: The highest blessing of life is to make others happy.

The irregular comparatives mejor and peor are in general use.

Mayor and menor refer more generally to age (older, elder, and younger).

"Inferior" and "superior" are generally used as their English equivalents.

The expressions "a larger building," "a higher tree," etc., are generally rendered "un edificio más grande," "un árbol más alto," etc.

Irregular superlatives—

Acre (sour) Acérrimo
Amigo (friendly) Amicísimo
Antiguo (ancient) Antiquísimo
Áspero (harsh) Aspérrimo
Benéfico (beneficent) Beneficentísimo
Benévolo (benevolent) Benevolentísimo
Célebre (celebrated) Celebérrimo
Fiel (faithful) Fidelísimo
Íntegro (upright) Integérrimo
Libre (free), Libérrimo
Magnífico (magnificent) Magnificentísimo
Mísero (miserable) Misérrimo
Munífico (munificent) Munificentísimo
Pobre (poor), Paupérrimo, and Pobrísimo (more used)
Sabio (wise) Sapientísimo
Sagrado (holy) Sacratísimo
Salubre (healthy) Salubérrimo
Simple (simple) Simplicísimo
—Ubérrimo (most fruitful)

Some of the best modern authors write "buenísimo," "nuevísimo," etc., regularly without substituting the diphthong by the pure vowel, as
"bonísimo," "novísimo," notwithstanding the shifting of the stress.[182]

[Footnote 182: See Note 47.]

Substantives used as adjectives admit of comparison, as—

Es tan caballero or más caballero que sus contrincantes: He is as (or more) gentlemanly as (than) his neighbours (competitors).

"Than" followed by a number, unless the sentence be negative, is translated by de.

"Than" followed by a finite verb is de lo que, as—

Cumple más de lo que promete: He accomplishes more than he promises.

But—

Hablar Español es más difícil que escribirlo: To speak Spanish is more difficult than to write it.

The following expressions are translated—

Él le lleva seis años: He is older than you by six years.

Esta tela cuesta cinco peniques menos la yarda: This cloth is cheaper by five pence a yard.

Esta casa es diez años más antigua: This firm is older by ten years.

Es tan poderoso que domina el mercado: He is so powerful as to control the market.

=Ver= (to see). Past Part., Visto. Pres. Indic., Veo[183] …

[Footnote 183: It forms the pres. subj., Vea, veas, etc. Imperf. Indic., Veía, veías, veía, veíamos, veíais, veían.]

VOCABULARY.

=acaudalado=, rich, wealthy
=*advertir=, to notice
=alcalde=, mayor
=alfombrada=, carpeting
=añadir=, to add
=apagarse=, to go out (fire)
=atraicionar=, to betray
=boticario=, chemist
=caja fuerte=, safe
=calorífero=, stove
=carbón (de piedra)=, coal
=carbón (vegetal)=, charcoal
=carpeta=, writing-pad
=casillero=, pigeon-holes
=certificar=, to certify, to register (in the post)
=chimenea=, chimney
=contestar=, to answer
=echar al correro=, to post
=ensartar=, to string (beads), to file (papers)
=escaño=, stool
=estante=, book-shelf
=franqueo=, postage
=guardafuego=, fender
=guardapapeles, ensartapapeles=, paper files
=humear=, to smoke (chimney)
=lacre=, sealing wax
=legajo=, bundle (of papers)
=librarse=, to get rid of
=mano de papel secante=, quire of blotting-paper
=pupitre=, writing desk
=sello=, seal
=el sobre=, the envelope
=sujeta papeles=, paper fasteners

EXERCISE 1 (69).

Translate into English—

1. La casa de Rioja a y Cía. es tan respetable por su buena fama (name)
como por lo acaudalados que son sus propietarios.

2. Sí, es más estimada que cualquiera otra.

3. Dicen que tiene más de £150,000 de capital.

4. Es muy rica en efecto, pero no creo que su capital ascienda á más que
£100,000.

5. Cuanto más corriente en sus tratos es un negociante, tanto mejor le resultan sus transacciones.

6. Estas son alfombradas de Bruselas que no las hay mejores en todo el mundo.

7. Tenemos un campo (field) amplísimo para nuestras operaciones, las cuales hasta aquí han tenido felicísimo resultado.

8. Nuestros géneros son todos de óptima calidad y á precios ínfimos.

9. Es de interés supremo para nosotros el dar los mejores productos á precios mínimos.

10. La cantidad máxima no ha de exceder 500 kilógramos.

11. El hermano mayor es notario y alcalde del pueblo, el menor es boticario.

12. La ciudad de Cádiz es antiquísima; fundóse en el siglo XV antes de la era vulgar por los Fenicios.

13. El clima de Valparaíso es salubírrimo.

14. Fidelísimo criado, no quiso atraicionar á su amo que había sido beneficentísimo para con él.

15. Euclides fué celebérrimo geómetra.

EXERCISE 2 (70).

Translate into Spanish—

1. I wish to straighten (poner en orden) the desk on (en) my table.

2. My pad is full of papers; I must get rid (librarme) of them.

3. Will you put all those answered letters in that shelf; You will find the pigeon-holes alphabetically arranged, put each letter in the proper bundle.

4. These others are filed away in that letter-file, alphabetically also.

5. Put the file in the safe; we always keep it under lock and key (bajo llave).

6. Now give me a quire of blotting-paper, pens, nibs (puntitas), paper-fasteners and the stamp-rack (porta-estampillas).

7. These envelopes go into the waste-paper basket (cestilla).

8. Fetch that stool, please; place it before that desk (banco).

9. See to the (hacer atención al) fire, it is going out, poke it
(removerlo) a little and add some coal.

10. This is the coal scuttle (caja del carbón), the shovel (la pala) and the poker (atizador) are near the fender.

11. Hot-water pipes (tubos) are preferable to fires or stoves.

12. Yes, our chimney always smokes; it is a nuisance (¡que fastidio!
¡que barbaridad!).

13. Post these letters. Stamp them (póngales los sellos) and notice there are some to be registered (para certificar).

14. Do not forget to put the stamp of the firm (casa).

15. If any weigh in excess (demasiado), it does not matter (no importa); put the excess postage.

16. Seal that envelope; here are the seal and sealing-wax.

LESSON XXXVI.
(Lección trigésima sexta.)

THE ADJECTIVE (contd.).

The adjective grande (great, large) may precede or follow a noun.

If it precedes it may drop the final syllable. When grande (or gran) precedes it generally refers more to quality than to size, but this rule is not strict at all, as much is left to the tone of the voice and also to gesture.

When "Santo" means "holy" it is always written in full.
When "Santo" means "saint" it drops the "to" before the name following.

EXCEPTIONS—

Santo Tomás (or Tomé), Santo Domingo, and Santo Torribio.

But—La isla de San Tomás (the Island of St. Thomas, West Indies).

Some adjectives alter their meaning according as they precede or follow a noun, as—

Cierto hombre: A certain man. (Not "un cierto.")
Una noticia cierta: A certain (sure) news.

Un pobre escritor: A poor writer—of little worth.
Un escritor pobre: An impecunious writer.

Un simple favor: A simple favour.
Un favor simple: A simple favour.

Un simple soldado: A simple (plain) soldier.
Un hombre simple: A simple man, a simpleton.

"One" and "ones" after an adjective are always left untranslated. "Man"
and "woman" in the majority of cases are also omitted, as—

Tengo algunos buenos: I have some good ones.
Un francés, una francesa: A Frenchman, a Frenchwoman.

Numeral adjectives used for measurement are translated as follows—

Una plataforma de 30 pies de largo y seis pies de ancho (also de 30 pies por seis): A platform 30 feet long by six feet wide.

Este tanque tiene 16 pies de profundidad: This tank is 16 feet deep.

"In" after a superlative relative is rendered by de, as—

Es el negociante más próspero de la ciudad: He is the most successful merchant in the city.

The proportional adjectives are—

El doble (the double)
El triple (3 fold)
El cuádruplo (4 fold)
El quíntuple (5 fold)
El séxtuple (6 fold)
El décuplo (10 fold)
El céntuplo (100 fold)
Siete veces tanto (7 fold)
Ocho veces tanto (8 fold). Etc., etc.

The adjective is used also adverbially, oftener in Spanish than in
English, as—

Hablar claro, alto, bajo, fuerte: To speak clearly, loudly, softly, strongly.

Comprar caro, barato: To buy dear, cheap.

Ir derecho: To go straight.

Tener fuerte: To hold fast.

Exclamó ufano, cortés, enfadado, bondadoso: He proudly, courteously, angrily, kindly exclaimed.

Justo ha llegado una carta: A letter has just arrived.

Adjectives have a governing power through a preposition and then the preposition to be used belongs to the "idiom" of the language. Practice will make perfect.

The following are some examples in which the construction differs from the English—

Afable á, or con, or para con todos: Affable to all.
Agradecido á los beneficios: Grateful for the favours.
Agudo de ingenio: Sharp-witted.
Ajeno de la verdad: Foreign to truth.
Alegre de cascos: Light-headed.
Blanco de tez: fair-complexioned.
Cargado de espaldas: Round-shouldered.
Codicioso, deseoso de dinero: Greedy, wishing for money.
Cercano á su fin: Nearing his end.
¡Desdichado de mí!: Unhappy me!
Difícil de comprender: Hard to understand.
Dotado de buenas partes: Endowed with good parts.
Duro de cabeza (de mollera), de corazón: Hard-headed, hard-hearted.
Evidente para todo el mundo: Evident to all.
Fácil de explicar: Easy to explain.
Falto de juicio: Lacking in judgment.
Hermoso de ver: Beautiful to see.
Lleno de cerveza, de vino: Full of (or with) beer, wine.
Mayor or Menor de edad: Of age, under age.
Pequeño de tamano: Small in size.
Rico de virtudes: Rich in virtues.
Seco (enjuto) de carnes: Spare in flesh.
Sorprendido de la noticia: Surprised at the news.
Tardo á comprender: Slow in understanding.
Triste de aspecto: Sad in countenance.

VOCABULARY.

=á la par=, at the same time
=las Antillas=, the West Indies
=atropellar por=, to infringe, to trample upon, also to run down (vehicles, etc.)
=blando=, gentle, soft
=chaconada=, jacconet
=ciencia=, science, wisdom
=corto=, short, brief
=desarme=, disarmament
=deseoso=, wishful, eager
=dique=, dock
=doctrina=, doctrine, knowledge
=equivocarse=, to make a mistake
=fletar=, to freight, to charter
=forros estampados=, printed linings
=hidalguía=, chivalry, nobleness, gentlemanly principles
=imponerse á=, to command
=inconveniencia=, unsuitability, impropriety
=el inconveniente=, inconvenience
=ladrillos refractarios=, firebricks
=lástima=, pity, compassion
=nivel=, level
=principal=, principal, chief, leading
=quejarse (de)=, to complain
=responsable=, responsible
=rizados, crespolinas=, crimps
=tío=, uncle, also a coarse fellow[184]
*=tropezar=, to stumble
=ufano=, proud, full of dignity
=velero=, sailing vessel, sailer

[Footnote 184: Also used before names instead of "Señor" among country folks.]

EXERCISE 1 (71).

Translate into English—

1. Gran lastima es, si lastima grande que las grandes naciones no se pongan de acuerdo para proclamar el desarme general.

2. Santa vida fué la de San Francisco de Asis.

3. Aun los racionalistas respetan a este Santo como también a la profunda doctrina de Santo Tom as de Aquino.

4. Ciertos nombres se imponen al respeto universal.

5. Es cosa cierta que la virtud puede ser patrimonio del hombre pobre como del rico.

6. Pobre excusa seria el pretender haberlo hecho por un simple favor pues esto no convencería a los hombres más simples.

7. El hombre más sabio del mundo puede equivocarse alguna vez, llegue á donde llegare su ciencia (however great, etc.)

8. Si V. me diera el doble, el triple, el quintuple, y aun seis, diez ó cien veces tanto, no cometería esa indelicadeza, atropellando por las leyes de la hidalguía y del honor.

9. El orador habla claro, metafórico, alto, bajo, fuerte, y blando según lo exija el argumento y las circunstancias pero se le demanda que tenga por bianco (to have for his aim) la virtud y el progreso.

10. Ande V. derecho y tenga fuerte que no vaya (lest you) á tropezar y á caerse.

11. Cortés y ufano á la par, repuso: "soy pobre mas soy honrado."

12. Justo lo que debía contestar.

13. Los estudiantes más agudos de ingenio son á veces un tantico alegres de cascos.

14. No importa (never mind), son todos deseosos de aprender y afables con su profesor que además de ser cojo de un pie ya está cercano á su fin.

15. Este tío es duro de cabeza aunque sea dotado de buenas partes.

EXERCISE 2 (72).

Translate into Spanish—

1. We are open (dispuestos) to charter a small steamer or a sailing vessel for St. Thomas in the West Indies.

2. We can offer you a small one for a voyage out and home (de ida y vuelta).

3. The heating surface (superficie de caldeo) is (es de) 20' X 15'.

4. These warehouses are 30' long, 20' wide (de ancho) and 15 feet high
(de alto).

5. Some are built with stone and mortar (son de mampostería), others with firebricks, and they are the best in the docks.

6. Last week nothing was doing (no se hacía) on 'Change, but' to-day leading operators are distinctly bullish (trabajan distintamente por la alza) and have acquired a further large holding (y se han afianzado mucho más), being more convinced than ever that prices will climb[185]
(subirán) to a much higher level.

7. Meanwhile the market is getting dangerously overbought (el exceso de compras en el mercado se hace peligroso).

8. He gave me too short a notice (aviso) and the consequence was 20 bales were short shipped (no se expidieron).

9. He now complains of being short of (que le faltan) printed linings, jacconets and crimps, also of short measure (de falta de medida) in some of the cloth invoiced.

10. Their orders fall short (son mucho menos) of what we expected.

11. We have run short of (se nos ha acabado) the raw material.

12. Our correspondents are short-staffed (no tienen bastante personal), hence their delaying often to send out (y por tanto a menudo retardan el envío de) our invoices, which is a great inconvenience.

[Footnote 185: To climb—Trepar.]

LESSON XXXVII.
(Lección trigésima séptima.)

THE PRONOUN.

The pronouns Nos and Vos are used for the 1st and 2nd person singular, respectively, in poetry and high-flown prose.

Nos is used in Royal decrees; and Vos often to translate the French
"vous" and English "you" in novels. They require the verb in the plural and any occurring adjective in the singular, masculine or feminine according to the sex represented—

Nos el Rey somos justo: We the King are just.

Vos Doña Catalina sois generosa: You, Lady Catherine, are generous.

A subject pronoun following "to be" and preceding a relative may be followed by a verb in the 1st or 3rd person, as—

Soy yo quien giré or giró aquella letra: It is I who drew that bill.

Two or more personal pronouns used as subjects of one verb require the verb in the plural, and in the 1st person in preference to the 2nd and
3rd, and 2nd in preference to 3rd, as—

Yo y tú (or yo y él) vamos; tú y él vais.

A conjunctive pronoun should precede the verb in the Indic. Cond. and
Subj. moods, but with the verb in the Indic. or Cond. mood a great latitude is allowed for the sake of euphony or emphasis. The principal idea is to give thereby more prominence to the verb, as—

Entreguéle los bultos, acordéle toda facilidad para el pago y quise acabarlo todo amistosamente.

The conjunctive pronouns lo, le, are both used for "him," "it" (m.),
(direct object); the second is more generally used for a person, but no distinction is strictly observed.

Lo (not le) should however be used for "it," referring to a whole statement.

Lo translates often the English "so," as—

Lo digo: I say it, I say so.

Ya lo creo: I should think so.

The conjunctive dative (indirect object) should be le for both genders
(sing.). La instead of le for the feminine is however permissible and is used by the best writers.

Les instead of los is often found in the accusative (direct object), masculine plural, but this should not be imitated.

When a conjunctive pers. pronoun follows the verb, the subject pronoun must also follow, as—

Dígolo yo (not yo dígolo): I say so.

Otherwise the position of the subject pronoun in relation to the verb is very arbitrary, the general practice being, of course, to put it before unless the sentence is interrogative.

The conj. pronouns nos and os following a verb in the Imperative mood require the elision of the s and d termination of the verb, as—

Escribámonos: Let us write to each other.

Escribíos: Write to each other.

Conjunctive pronouns are used to substitute the possessive adjective before parts of the body or articles of dress, as—

Me quebré el brazo: I broke my arm.

Se lastimó el dedo: He hurt his finger.

Se puso el sombrero: He put on his hat.

Also—

Me han impuesto una multa sobre los géneros: They have inflicted a fine on my goods.

And in all similar cases when by doing this the possessive may be avoided without creating confusion.

A somewhat similar use of these pronouns is the "ethical" dative, as—

Póngame aquí un clavo: Put me a nail here.

Castígueme este muchacho para que aprenda: Punish this boy (for me) so that he may learn.

Córteme el pelo á este muchacho: Cut this boy's hair.

This "ethical dative" shows the person _interested in the action. Its use is much more frequent in Spanish than in English.

=Conducir= (model verb for all ending in ducir; to conduct, to lead).

Pres. Indic., Conduzco—————

Pres. Subj., Conduzca, conduzcas, conduzca, conduzcamos, conduzcáis, conduzcan.

Past Def., Conduje, condujiste, condujo, condujimos, condujisteis, condujeron.[186]

[Footnote 186: Not "condujieron." Imp. Subj., of course, Condujese, etc.]

VOCABULARY.

=abordar=, to board, to accost, to approach
=*abrir agua=, to spring a leak
=ajeno=, belonging to others, outward
*=andar en cuestiones=, to dispute
=barrica=, cask
=cabo=, corporal
=¿cómo no?= yes, of course I will
*=cubrir (p.p. cubierto)=, to cover
*=dar dos pasos=, to take a stroll
*=dar la lengua=, to chat, to parley
=despejar=, to clear
=devanarse los sesos=, to rack one's brains
=difunto=, late, deceased
=estallar=, to burst, to explode, to break out
=formal=, formal, respectable
*=ir repitiendo, etc=., to keep repeating, etc.
=jefe del despacho=, manager
=llevarse bien=, to get on well together
=lograr=, to contrive, to attain
=machacar=, to hammer, to insist
=mandato=, order, injunction
=melindroso=, squeamish, very particular
=multa=, fine, penalty
=Noruego=, Norwegian
=peligro=, danger
=remolcar=, to tow
=sacar en limpio=, to make out
¡=santo y bueno=! that is all very well
=sargento=, sergeant
=transportar=, to transport, to convey
=tul bordado=, embroidered tulle
=vender gato por liebre=, to cheat
¡=vaya=! come (exclam.)

EXERCISE 1 (73)

Translate into English—

1. ¿Vió V. á la Señora (the wife) del Coronel?

2. Víla ayer y la dí el recado del Sr. Mayor.

3. ¿Este cabo se lleva bien con sus soldados?

4. Lo creo, me lo ha dicho el sargento.

5. Bueno fuera írselo repitiendo al jefe para que abrevie, si puede ser.

6. Á mi no me cuente para nada (do not take me into account), valdríale mejor verse con (see) el jefe del despacho.

7. Á él le gusta dar la lengua, vaya á hablarle.

8. No le conozco, V. se hace cargo (you understand) que me resulta dificultoso el abordarle, y lo mismo da (it is the same) hablar con V.

9. V. se equivoca, va mucho de Pedro á Pedro (there is a great difference between the two) y en cuanto á su timidez no sea V.
melindroso y tenga presente que el que no se atreve no pasa la mar
(nothing venture, nothing have).

10. Para no andar en más cuestiones seguiré su mandato (I shall do as you tell me).

11. ¡Que tenga V. buena suerte!

12. Me devané los sesos procurando sacar en limpio lo que quería decir la carta pero no me fué posible y dí al diablo con el hato y el garabato
(I gave up the whole confounded thing) como se suele decir.

13. Me puse el sombrero y me fuí para dar dos pasos y despejarme la cabeza.

14. Sr. Juan, V. machaca desde muchos días sobre que le debo dar alguna orden á Don José, pues para darles gusto á ambos salúdemele V. mucho
(give him my kind regards), en su primera carta y dígale que me envíe luego 500 piezas de tul bordado repetición de mi pedido anterior, mismos matices.

EXERCISE 2 (74).

Translate into Spanish—

1. It is I who conveyed (trasmitir) that information to him.

2. The goods were conveyed by the Ship Canal (el canal marítimo).

3. Have you made it clear (lo ha explicado claramente) that the risk will be covered whether the casks travel by steamer or other conveyance
(medio de trasporte)?

4. Our agent contrived to get the fine refunded (hacerse refundir); he wrote us so.

5. The vessel sprang a leak and was in danger but she spoke (habló con la bocina á) a Norwegian steamer, who gave her assistance and towed her to (al) Havre.

6. The conditions you have put forth (presentado) are altogether unacceptable.

7. Put him in the way (muéstrele V. el modo) of conducting his business without depending on (de) outward assistance.

8. He conducted his late employer's (jefe) business quite satisfactorily.

9. Had I feared he would not conduct his own affairs properly (bien) I should not have financed (comanditado) him.

10. He puts a wrong construction to my words (interpreta mal).

11. He owes us some money and keeps putting us off (y nos va dando largas).

12. He has put off his journey (diferido, aplazado).

13. If you wish me to do business with your goodselves (su estimada casa) you must put me on (concederme) the best possible terms.

14. The alarming news from India has put our market out of gear
(descompuesto).

15. Mr. Núñez was dreadfully put out (terriblemente desconcertado) by the news that the revolution had broken out in Ecuador.

16. We must put up with (soportar) some inconvenience.

17. We shall put an end to (acabaremos) this exercise.

LESSON XXXVIII.
(Lección trigésima octava.)

THE PRONOUN. (contd.).

Such expressions as "I did it myself," "You write it yourself," "we spoke to him himself," are translated "Yo mismo lo hice," "V. mismo lo escribe," "Le hablamos á él mismo."

Notice the following idiomatic uses of Lo, La, Los, Las with the verbs haber and hacer—

¿Hay dinero? Is there money?—Sí, lo hay: Yes, there is some.

¿Hay pasividades? Are there any liabilities?—Sí, las hay: Yes, there are some.

¿Hace dos días? Is it two days ago?—No, no los hace: No, it is not.

¿Hace una semana? Is it a week ago?—Sí, la hace: Yes, it is.

¿Hace falta escribir? Is it necessary to write?—La hace, mucho: Yes, very necessary.

In the case of two verbs governing each other as "ir á ver" (to go and see), "mandar hacer" (to have made), etc., a conjunctive pronoun, occurring, may be taken by either verb, as—

Irle á ver or ir á verle: To go and see him.

Mandarlo hacer or Mandar hacerlo: To have it made.

An object pronoun after a preposition may often be either ordinary or reflexive as in English, as—

Los abogados han zanjado el asunto entre sí or entre ellos: The lawyers compromised the matter amongst themselves (or them).

Of course él, ella, ellos, ellas, cannot be used with reference to
"V." "Vs."—

Vs. lo han arreglado entre sí or entre Vs. (but not entre ellos):
You have arranged it between yourselves.

=Demonstrative Pronouns=.

Old Spanish forms now obsolete or seldom used—

Aqueste, etc., aquese, etc., for este, ese, etc.

Estotro, esotro, etc., for este otro, ese otro, etc.

The English expressions "I have not seen him these three months," etc., should be translated "Hace or ha tres meses que no le veo," "Hace or ha tres meses que no le he visto," "No le he visto (or no le veo)
desde hace tres meses," "Hace (or ha) tres meses desde que le ví la última vez."

"I have been writing these three hours," is translated "Hace tres horas que escribo (estoy escribiendo)," "Escribo" (estoy escribiendo) desde hace tres horas.

=Relative Pronouns=.

Cuyo in reality a relative possessive pronoun is often used as a pure relative instead of el cual followed by a noun, as—

Lo dí a un cliente, cuyo cliente lo pasó á un amigo de él:

I gave it to a customer which customer handed it to a friend of his.

The correct grammatical construction would be "el cual cliente"; but however much some grammarians disclaim this employment of cuyo, it is in the language and found in the best books and therefore must be accepted.

=Indefinite Pronouns=.

The Indefinite Pronouns algo and nada followed by an adjective, generally (but not necessarily) take =de= before the adjective, as—

Tengo algo (de) bueno: I have something good.
No tengo nada (de) bueno: I have nothing good.

Un nada is used as a noun, as—

Un nada le asusta: A nothing frightens him.

La nada—nothingness.

+———————————————————————————————————+
| =Sentir= (to feel, to regret). |
|Pres. Part., |Sintiendo. |
|Pres. Indic.,|Siento, sientes, siente … sienten. |
|Pres. Subj., |Sienta, sientas, sienta, sintamos, sintáis, sientan. |
|Past Def., | — — — sintió — — — sintieron.|
+———————————————————————————————————+
| =Pediz= (to ask, to request). |
|Pres. Part., |Pidiendo. |
|Pres. Indic.,|Pido, pides, pide — — — — piden. |
|Pres. Subj., |Pida, pidas, pida, pidamos, pidáis, pidan. |
|Past Def., | — — — pidió — — — pidieron. |
+———————————————————————————————————+
| =Dormir= (to sleep).[187] |
|Pres. Part., |Durmiendo. |
|Pres. Ind., |Duermo, duermes, duerme … duermen. |
|Pres. Subj., |Duerma, duermas, duerma, durmamos, durmáis, duerman. |
|Past Def., | — — — durmió — — — durmieron.|
+———————————————————————————————————+

[Footnote 187: "Morir" is conjugated like "dormir," but has its past part.
"muerto." N.B.—"Muerto" is also a double form of the past part. of
"matar" (to kill), as—Le han muerto: They have killed him.]

VOCABULARY.

=adeudar=, to debit, to pay (duty)
=atrasado=, in arrears, behind
=ce por be=, with all particulars, minutely
=chapas=, plates
*=contar=, to count, to relate
=discreto=, sensible, judicious, discreet
=dispensar=, to excuse
=echar á perder=, to spoil, to wreck
=empeoramiento=, turn for the worse
*=estar en poco de=, to be within an inch of
=grano de anis=, a trifling matter
*=hacer de las suyas=, to play one's pranks
*=hacer el obsequio=, to do the favour
=informe=, report
=mandar buscar=, to send for
=obligar=, to compel
*=obtener=, to obtain, to bring about
=pesado=, heavy
=quehaceres=, occupations, business
=reglamento=, regulation, bye-laws
=remesa=, remittance, shipment
=revista=, review
=rodajas (de goma)=, rubber heels (revolving)
=tacones (de goma)=, rubber heels (shaped)
=taller=, workshop
=tonto=, simpleton, foolish
=tornillos=, screws

EXERCISE 1 (75).

Translate into English—

1. Yo mismo escribo al Sr. Mendoza para decirle que puede hacer sus pedidos á Vs. directamente pues, por mi parte no tengo inconveniente en que así se haga.

2. Si dicho Señor envía pedidos ¿hace falta avisarle á V.?

3. Sí, la hace, y les ruego tengan la bondad de decírmelo á fin de poner á Vs. en conocimiento de las condiciones en que deben hacerse las remesas, etc.

4. ¿Hace ocho días que Ilegó el informe de la comisión?

5. Creo que no los hace todavía.

6. Tengo los muestrarios aquí, voy á dárselos á V.

7. Se los voy á devolver en seguida.

8. Nuestro agente y los corresponsales arreglarán esto entre ellos (or entre sí).

9. Hace tres meses que no recibimos las revistas semanales de ese mercado, las hemos pedido continuamente y siempre en balde.

10. Nuestros aduaneros cobran todo el peso (charge full weight) por sus tacones y rodajas como si fuera goma solamente siendo así que vienen juntos con sus chapas y tornillos, cuyos hierros, claro es, no debían
(deberían) adeudar el mismo derecho.

11. No sucedió nada de extraordinario para justificar su acción que en poco estuvo de echarlo todo á perder.

12. Hágame V. el obsequio de contármelo todo, pues no es ningún grano de anís.

13. Sentarse[188] pues y se lo contaré ce por be.

14. Dispense V. que le haya hecho esperar, tuve que despachar á mi chauffeur.

15. Es V. muy dueño, pero acuérdese V. que primero los quehaceres y después los placeres.

16. V. es hombre discrete y lo que es yo, soy un pobre ton to.

17. Vamos é ver de que se trata.

18. ¿Ha hecho V. alguna de las suyas?

[Footnote 188: Notice the Imperative Infinitive.]

EXERCISE 2 (76).

Translate into Spanish—

1. I regret having left the newspapers at the workshop, but I shall send for them.

2. He regretted the turn for the worse in the market which compelled him to request us to ask our friend for a guarantee.

3. English manufacturers are not asleep.

4. They have been asleep for many years but now they are wide awake (se han despertado bien) to the necessity of adopting up-to-date methods
(modernos, á la altura de los tiempos) and adapting themselves to the requirements of the consumers.

5. Manufacturers are selling every day but usually (generalmente) in small lots.

6. Shirting makers want more money and find difficulty in getting it.

7. Dhooties (dhooties) and jacconets are now so well sold that producers
(productores) will only book (aceptan órdenes) at good prices.

8. Heavy textiles (telas) are too stiff for general attention (demasiado firmes para atraer á los compradores) but makers are not hungry for
(ansiosos de obtener) orders.

9. Indian business was barely (apenas) of normal dimensions
(proporciones).

10. Will you set the books on that shelf (estante) and set (colocar)
those papers in order?

11. The term you have set me (fijado) is too short.

12. They ought to set a (dar) good example.

13. He set about it (puso mano á la obra) at once.

14. Setting aside the (prescindiendo del) fact that he is behind with his payments, he does us great harm by running down (desacreditando) our goods.

15. Winter has set in (principiado) and heavy cloths are in great request.

16. I have set my mind on (me he decidido á) this venture.

17. A movement has been set on foot (iniciado) to bring about the revision of the bye-laws.

LESSON XXXIX.
(Lección trigésima nona.)

THE VERB.

All intransitive verbs in Spanish are conjugated with the auxiliary verb haber, as—

Ha venido: He has or is come.

A verb that governs an infinitive through a certain preposition, as—

Convenimos en hacerlo: We agreed upon doing it.

should drop the preposition when a finite verb follows.

N.B.—Many such verbs, however, may preserve the preposition even before a finite mood, as—

Convenimos que, or en que, lo hiciesen: We agreed that they should do it.

When the subject of a verb is a collective noun, the verb is placed in the singular (see Lesson XXXII for exception).

When a compound subject follows the verb, this may agree in number and person with the first subject only, as—

Nos ha llegado la circular y los impresos que la acompañaban: We received the circular and the printed matter which accompanied it.

The ambiguity between a Reflexive verb plural and a Reciprocal verb is avoided thus—

Se comprometen á sí (á sí mismos—emphatic): They commit themselves.

Se comprometen el uno al ótro, or los unos á los otros: They commit each other.

A Reflexive verb is that in which the second pronoun of the same person as the subject, is the direct object of the action, as—

Ellos se comprometen: They commit themselves.

But when the second pronoun stands for the indirect object, the verb is only intransitive pronominal, as—

Él se procuró un empleo: He procured for himself an employment.

=The Passive Voice=.

The Passive voice formed with ser occurs much less in Spanish than in
English.

When the "doer" is not expressed the active voice with se generally takes its place, as—

Los niños se aman or Se ama[189] á los niños: Children are loved.

[Footnote 189: Notice Sing. number.]

When the "doer" is mentioned the following construction is often used—

Á estos niños los aman sus padres: These children are loved by their parents.

The English present participle used substantively is rendered in Spanish by a noun or by the infinitive mood of the verb generally preceded by the definite article, as—

El cambio de las condiciones: The changing of the terms.
El cambiar las condiciones: The changing of the terms.

Su comunicación á las autoridades de la Aduana,
El escribir or el haber escrito él á las autoridades de la Aduana:
His writing to the custom-house authorities.

El vender á crédito á largos plazos no es un principio sano:
Selling on credit with long terms is not a sound practice.

Prefiero comprar disponible (or las compras de disponible):
I prefer spot buying.

=_The English gerund following "by" is translated by the gerund without preposition or by the infinitive preceded by con, as—_=

Depositando (or con depositar) sus acciones se puso en perfecta regla:
By depositing his shares, he put himself in order.

The Spanish verbal forms ending in ante and iente, as: Amante
(lover), tratante (dealer), dependiente (clerk), etc., used to be termed
"present participles," and the analogous forms "amando" (loving),
"tratando" (treating), "dependiendo" (depending), etc., "gerunds," but this has now taken the place of both forms, used as verbs, and the forms in ante and iente are classed as other parts of speech, according to their meaning, as—

Amante de la música (adj.): Fond of music.
Un tratante en trigos (noun): A dealer in wheat.
Un dependiente de comercio (noun): A commercial clerk.
Durante la exposicion (prep.): During the exhibition.
Mediante su ayuda (prep.): By means of his help.
No obstante que vino (conj.): Notwithstanding his coming.
¡Corriente! (interj.): All right! done!

=Huir= (to flee).[190]

Pres. Indic., Huyo, huyes, huye … huyen. Pres. Subj., Huya, huyas, huya, huyamos, huyáis, huyan.

[Footnote 190: Model for all verbs ending in "uir" (with "u" sounded).]

VOCABULARY.

=acabado=, finish (cloth)
=acudir=, to have recourse, to attend, to run to
=á las claras=, plainly, clearly
=apresto=, size, also finish (cloth)
=aprovecharse=, to take advantage
=bomba de doble efecto=, double-acting pump
=burlarse=, to make fun of, to trifle with
=chucherías=, pretty trifles
*=convenir en=, to agree to
=engañifas=, tricks
=escandaloso=, scandalous, shocking
=granjearse=, to win over
*=hacer ver=, to show
*=herir=, to wound, to cut (fig.)
=mediar=, to come between, to intervene, to take place in the meantime
*=no tener pelo de tonto=, not to be a simpleton
=quitar=, to take away
*=reducir á un mínimo=, to reduce to a minimum, to minimise
*=saber á punto fijo=, to know for certain
=sospechar=, to suspect
=suave=, soft, mellow, gentle
=subsanar=, to correct, to rectify
=tacto=, feel (n.), touch (n.)
=voluntad=, will, goodwill, favour

EXERCISE 1 (77).

Translate into English—

1. Á mí no me venga con estas engañifas que no tengo pelo de tonto.

2. Me hace regalos de algunas chucherías para granjearse mi voluntad y aprovecharse después.

3. ¿Sabe V. á punto fijo que son estas sus intenciones?

4. Mediaron algunas cosillas que me han hecho sospechar algo de eso y de mí nadie se burla.

5. V. debe de equivocarse y sólo por sospechas no debe quitarle su amistad.

6. Estas hermosas calderas de alta presión las han construido en
Inglaterra y estas bombas de doble efecto las han importado de los
Estados Unidos.

7. El conceder él mayores facilidades á los compradores le ha hecho conseguir una extensa clientela.

8. Con uniformarse á mis disposiciones (orders, instructions) él cumplirá con su deber y yo quedaré mas contento.

9. No soy amante de disputas, mis dependientes podrán asegurarle que durante mi larga carrera y no obstante que no faltaron ocasiones, no acudí una sola vez á los Tribunales.

EXERCISE 2 (78).

Translate into Spanish—

1. The long and short of the matter is that (en pocas palabras) we had agreed he was to do it.

2. This is nothing short of dishonesty (esto se llama falta de honradez, nada menos).

3. No matter what he will say (diga lo que dijere) I am sure he will have to pay.

4. The estimate and the sketches attached reached us just in (á) time.

5. The cloth was run (plegada) in pieces of 20 yds. exactly, the consequence being that some pieces were found by the customer to be with cuts (cortes).

6. It is of no use (es inútil) our struggling any longer (por más tiempo) against adversity.

7. Your writing in that strain (en aquel tono) shows plainly that their action has cut you to the quick (profundamente).

8. By selling in time he managed (logró) to minimise the loss.

9. The shocking abuses that existed under the monarchy are being (se van) corrected by the Republican Government.

10. We shall show them that our firm is not to be trifled with.

11. These stuffs are too heavily sized and the finish is not sufficiently mellow.

12. Their feel is not clothy (no tienen bastante cuerpo al tacto).

13. This defect will be made right in future deliveries.

LESSON XL.
(Lección cuadragéseima.)

THE VERB (contd.).

As in English, several past participles may be used with an active meaning, as—

Un hombre leído: A well-read man (for a man who has read much and well).

The following are some examples—

Agradecido (grateful)
Atrevido (bold, daring)
Bien hablado (a courteous speaker)
Callado (taciturn)
Cansado (tiresome)
Comedido (thoughtful, considerate)
Corrido[191] (acute, artful)
Divertido (amusing)
Entendido (experienced, conversant)
Experimentado (experienced, expert)
Sufrido (patient)

[Footnote 191: With a passive meaning it is "abashed."]

=The Tenses=.

The periphrastic or progressive conjugation: "I am buying," "I was selling," "I shall be buying," etc., exists in Spanish with the following differences from English:—

In the present and the past it is used, but only when the action embraces a certain length of time, otherwise the simple form "I buy," "I sold" (imperf. indic.) must be used, as—

Fulano se arrojaba por la ventana (not se estaba arrojando).

The Spanish Academy gives this example as of an action more or less instantaneous: So-and-So was throwing himself out of the window.

The periphrastic form is inadmissible unless one is actually engaged in the action, as:

Hoy como con mi amigo (not "estoy comiendo," because not actually engaged in the action): To-day I am dining with my friend.

In the future this construction is permissible only in such cases as—

Cuando venga mañana, yo estaré escribiendo: To-morrow when he comes, I shall be writing.

The periphrastic form never happens with the verb ir (to go), and seldom with venir (to come).

The English present perfect (preterite compuesto) "I have done" is often used in Spanish for the past definite "I did," when the period of time in which the action took place is not specified.

The Spanish Academy gives—

Siempre que he ido á Madrid he visitado el Prado for Whenever I went to Madrid I visited the Prado.

We even find "ayer he hecho esto ó aquello" for "yesterday I did this or that," and this is accounted for by the "nearness" of the period elapsed. Although colloquially this does not sound at all so badly as in
English, well-educated Spaniards will take care to avoid it.

The second or bye-form of the imperfect subjunctive may be used also for the conditional mood, as—

Se lo diera si lo tuviese instead of se lo daría, etc.: I should give it to him if I had it.

It is also found (in books, not in conversation) for the compound imperfect indicative, especially after que, as—

Los consejos que le diera (for que le había dado): The advice which I had given him.

In old Spanish, and even now in poetry, we find it used for every one of the compound past tenses.

=General Observations=.

The verb "to come" should be rendered in Spanish by ir when the person is not in the place in question at the time of speaking or writing, as—

¿Quiere V. venir aquí á mi casa mañana? Will you come here to my house to-morrow?

Hoy estoy indispuesto pero mañana iré á verle: To-day I am unwell (out of sorts), but to-morrow I shall come to see you.

La vi escribir: I saw her writing; viz., I saw her write.

La vi escribiendo: I saw her writing; viz., whilst she was writing.

The emphatic word in an English sentence is often and more elegantly translated by a paraphrase in Spanish—

¿Es verdad que ha comprado los géneros? Has he bought the goods?

¿Es él quien ha comprado los géneros? Has he bought the goods?

¿De veras ha comprado los géneros? Has he bought the goods?

¿Pues son los géneros lo que ha comprado? Has he bought the goods?

Esta transacción hubo de arruinarle: This transaction was within an ace of ruining him.

"I believe myself to be clever," etc., is not translated "Yo me creo ser hábil," but "Yo me creo (or considero) hábil," or "Yo creo ser hábil,"
or "Creo que soy hábil."

=Decir (to say, to tell)=.

Pres. Part., Diciendo. Past Part., Dicho. Pres. Indic., Digo, dices, dice,—,—, dicen. Pres. Subj., Diga, digas, diga, digamos, digáis, digan. Imp. Mood, Dí … Past Def. Indic., Dije, dijiste, dijo, dijimos, dijisteis, dijeron. Future Indic., Diré, dirás, dirá, diremos, diréis, dirán.

VOCABULARY.

=agrupación=, group, muster
=aislado=, isolated, hedged in
=alcalde=, mayor
=arreglo amistoso=, friendly understanding
=capataz=, foreman
=carta de naturaleza=, certificate of naturalization
=cifras=, figures
*=dar pasos=, to take steps
=dedicarse=, to devote oneself
=derechos protectores=, protective duties
=diputación= provincial, provincial council
=elaborar=, to elaborate
=genio=, temper
=inquietarse=, to feel uneasy
*=no tenerlas todas consigo=, to feel uneasy
*=irse en rodeos=, to beat about the bush
=labor indígena=, native labour
=pequeñeces=, trifling matters
=perspectivas=, prospects
=plan=, plan[192] (idea)
=proyecto=, project, scheme
=repasar=, to go through
=resultado=, result
=(de) resultas de=, in consequence of, as a result of
=vecino=, inhabitant, ratepayer[193]
=vuelta de correo (á), (by) return of post

[Footnote 192: Plan, sketch = "Plano."]

[Footnote 193: Vecino = ratepayer who has acquired certain rights after a certain period of residence.]

EXERCISE 1 (79).

Translate into English—

1. Las leyes de España declaran: Son españoles todas las personas nacidas en territorio español, los hijos de padre ó madre españoles aunque hayan nacido fuera de España, y los extranjeros que hayan obtenido del Gobierno Español carta de naturaleza, ó sean vecinos de cualquier pueblo de España.

2. Añaden que los extranjeros pueden establecerse y dedicarse libremente á sus profesiones en territorio español; pero ningún extranjero puede ejercer en España cargo alguno que represente autoridad.

3. Los miembros del Concejo ó cabildo ó ayuntamiento ó corporación municipal se llaman Concejales ó regidores.

4. En España el alcalde de Madrid es nombrado libremente por el
Gobierno; el alcalde de las localidades cuya población no baje de 6,000 habitantes es nombrado por el Gobierno de entre los concejales, los demás alcaldes son nombrados por el voto de su compañeros concejales.

5. Los cargos concejiles son gratuitos.

6. La Diputación Provincial es la agrupación de los varios municipios de cada provincia, y se reúne dos veces al año en la capital de la provincia.

EXERCISE 2 (80).

Translate into Spanish—

1. The foreman is grateful for his master's kindness.

2. The Director is elaborating a bold scheme for establishing, in a foreign country hedged in by protective duties, a factory worked by native labour under an English manager (gerente) and experienced English instructors.

3. If this plan reaches concretion (se verifica) he will be going abroad shortly, when he will find that his agents will be taking already the preliminary steps.

4. The Director himself is coming towards us, he will tell you more about it.

5. I am going to attend to several trifling matters which however want looking after (hay que cuidar).

6. Whenever (siempre que) I decided on (he decidido) a thing, I have always acted on my decision (la he puesto en ejecución).

7. I tell you if I had a larger stock, I should feel rather uneasy at
(con) the prospects of the market.

8. Come and see me to-morrow at my office and we shall come (llegaremos)
to a friendly understanding without beating about the bush.

9. He told me the figures did not compare well with (no eran buenas en comparación de) those of last year.

10. Please go through the accounts again and tell me the result by return of post.

11. Short reckonings make long friends (las cuentas claras y el chocolate espeso).

12. He lost money as a result of his bad temper.

LESSON XLI.
(Lección cuadragésima primera.)

THE VERB (contd.).

Ser and Estar. Such expressions as "Smoking is prohibited," etc., are translated either "Es prohibido fumar" or "Está prohibido fumar."
Both translations are grammatically correct ("Está prohibido fumar" is the general expression in this particular case).

If we say "Es prohibido fumar," we are referring to the "doer" of the action: "Es prohibido por la ley, por la policia, por los jefes, etc., etc."—a case of passive voice.

If we say "Está prohibido fumar" we have no "doer" in our mind, but only the thing itself = a case of "a condition of things" resulting from the action (the prohibition).

=EXAMPLE—=

El fumar es prohibido por el jefe, por esto está prohibido fumar en nuestro despacho: Smoking is prohibited by our employer (viz., our employer prohibits smoking), therefore it is not allowed in our office.

The above example is given for the sake of illustration by contrast; in practice, of course, such oddities are avoided.

The English expressions, "It is I, you, he, we, they, who …" must be rendered in Spanish by "Soy yo, es V., somos nosotros, etc., quien or quienes …"; i.e., the English impersonal "it is" must be made personal in Spanish.

We said that verbs may have a different government in the two languages, as—

Colgar de un clavo: To hang on a nail.

Entrar en una casa: To enter a house.

This, one of the points for which rules cannot be laid, belongs to the idiom of the language, and practice is the only master (see Appendix V for a list of the most conspicuous differences) In reading, together with the meaning of a verb, ascertain its government.

Some peculiarities of Spanish verbs—

Acabar de, followed by an infinitive, translates the English "to have just," followed by a past participle, as—

Acaba de flotarse una sociedad: A company has just been floated.

Acertar á, followed by an infinitive, translates "to happen," as—

Acertaron á pasar cuando ella estaba asomada á la ventana: They happened to pass when she was looking out of the window.

Acertó a ser viernes aquel día: That day happened to be a Friday.

Alegrarse de, Celebrar—"to be glad to," "to rejoice at."

Me alegro mucho de la noticia; Celebro mucho la noticia: I am glad of the news.

(Before an infinitive de is omitted after "alegrarse," as: Me alegro decirle: I am glad to tell you.)

Caber (see Lesson XXX) is used figuratively in many locutions—

No cabe en nosotros tal acción: We are not capable of such an action.

No cabe en sí de gozo: He is beside himself with joy.

Le cupo el premio gordo: it was his lot or luck to get the chief prize.

No se puede saber lo que le cabrá á uno en suerte: One cannot know what one's lot will be.

Esta tela es de calidad que no cabe más: This cloth is perfection itself.

No caber en sí: To be puffed up with pride.

=Ir= (to go).

Pres. Part., Yendo.[194] Pres. Indic., Voy, vas, va, vamos, vais, van. Pres. Subj., Vaya, vayas, vaya, vayamos, vayáis, vayan. Imper. Mood, Ve … vayamos or vamos … Imperf. Indic., Iba, ibas, iba, íbamos, ibais, iban. Past Def. Indic., Fuí, fuiste, fué, fuimos, fuisteis, fueron.

[Footnote 194: No word in Spanish commences with "ie." Hence the change into "ye."]

=Oir= (to hear).

Pres. Indic., Oigo.

Salir (to go out).

Pres. Indic., Salgo. Pres. Subj., Salga, salgas, salga, salgamos, salgáis, salgan. Imp. Mood, Sal . . . Fut. Indic., Saldré, saldrás, saldrá, saldremos, saldréis, saldrán.

VOCABULARY.

=arrancar=, to wrench, to squeeze out
=biblioteca=, public library
=codicia=, greed, covetousness
*=darsele á uno de una cosa=, to matter
=desgraciado=, unfortunate
=deslumbrar=, to dazzle
=factura simulada=, pro forma invoice
=fiesta del comercio=, bank holiday
=fomento=, development, encouragement
*=hacer impresión=, to impress
=hacienda=, finance, property
=(no) perdonar nada=, to leave no stone unturned
=próxima=, near, approaching
*=regir=, to rule, to govern, to control
=sacar=, to pull out, to get out
=sin perjuicio de=, excepting
*=tener a su cargo=, to have in charge
*=tener en poco=, to think little of

EXERCISE 1 (81).

Translate into English—

1. El Gobierno en España se compone de ocho ministerios.

2. El Ministerio de Estado trata de las relaciones de España con los demás Estados y corresponde al "Foreign Office" inglés.

3. El de Gracia y Justicia tiene á su cargo todos los asuntos relativos á la Administración de Justicia y alorden eclesiástico.

4. El de la Guerra que es lo mismo que nuestro "War Office."

5. El de Hacienda, el Ministerio de Marina, el Ministerio de la
Gobernación (Ministry of the Interior) que vigila y dirige todos los negocios y asuntos propios del Gobierno y administración civil del
Estado, así generales como locales, sin perjuicio de las atribuciones de los ayuntamientos y Diputaciones provinciales, el Ministerio de Fomento
(Ministry of P. Works) que rige todo lo relative á la agricultura, industria, comercio, obras, públicas, montes (forests), minas, y estadísticas.

6. Este corresponde más ó menos al inglés "Board of Trade;" y el
Ministerio de Instrucción Pública y Bellas Artes que tiene á su cargo cuanto se refiere á la enseñanza, bellas artes, archivos, bibliotecas, y museos, y que representa aproximadamente al "Board of Education."

EXERCISE 2 (82).

Translate into Spanish—

1. It is I who shall leave for Paris (saldré para) now that the matter is arranged.

2. I am going out as I hear somebody calling me.

3. Go, but do not be long.

4. Yesterday you went for a few minutes but it was an hour before you returned (no volvió antes de).

5. We have just heard of his approaching visit to England.

6. It happened to be on a bank holiday and our offices (oficinas) were of course closed on that day.

7. We shall be glad if you will kindly instruct (dé instrucciones á)
your cashier to pay our account.

8. We have the pleasure of enclosing the pro forma invoices.

9. I am incapable of so much greed.

10. I am sorry to have to tell you that the cargo by the s.s. "Maria"
was lost through the vessel stranding (por haber varado) on (en) the
Spanish coast.

11. Coming back from having seen (á vuelta de haber visto) the machine working (en función) he told us how favourably impressed he had been.

12. He was dazzled by the brilliant prospects set before him.

13. This is nothing to me.

14. There is nothing or very little to be got out of that firm.

15. I have left no stone unturned to squeeze something out of this unfortunate business but it has been of no avail.

16. He thinks nothing of our work.

LESSON XLII.
(Lección cuadragésima segunda.)

THE VERB (contd.).

Caer has several idiomatic uses—

Este vestido le cae bien: This dress fits her well.
Caer en gracia: To fall into the good graces of one.
La puerta cae á oriente: The door is on the east side.
Ya caigo, ya caigo en ello: Now I understand.
Caerse redondo: To fall flat.

Dar—

Dar en el clavo (= acertar): To hit it.
Dar por concedido, dar de barato: To grant for the sake of argument.
Lo doy por bueno: I consider it as good.
Dar los naipes: To deal cards.
Dar la enhorabuena, el pésame, los buenos días: To congratulate, to
condole with, to wish good day.
Dar la hora: To strike the hour.
Dar en caprichos: To give oneself up to whims.
Dar en un error: To incur an error.
Darse preso: To give oneself up.
Darse al estudio: To apply or devote oneself to study.
Dar á creer: To make believe.
Dar con una persona: To come across a person.
No se me da nada: I do not care a bit.
Ahí me las den todas: I do not care a bit.

Many other idioms are formed with dar for which a good dictionary should be consulted.

Dejar de—to cease from, to omit, to fail to.

Dejemos de hablar: Let us cease talking.
Dejó de hacerme la remesa que me había prometido: He omitted to send me
the remittance he promised me.
No dejaré de ejecutar su orden: I shall not fail to execute your order.

Echar (to throw) forms also many idioms for which the dictionary should be consulted—

Echar á correr, á reir, etc.: To start running, laughing, etc.
Echar á perder: To spoil, to ruin.
Echar de beber: To pour out drink.
Echar de ver: To perceive, to notice.
Esto se echa de ver: This is obvious.
Echar menos or de menos: To miss, to feel the want of.
Echar la llave, el cerrojo, la tranca: To lock, to bolt, to bar (the
door).
Echar la culpa: To lay the blame.
Echar mano: To lay hold, to lay hands upon.
Echar un cigarillo, un puro: To smoke a cigarette, a cigar.

Estar—"to be."

Estar en que: To be of opinion.
Estar por: To be in favour of.
Estar para: To be on the point of.
Estar por hacer: To be yet to be done.

Faltar—"to fail," "to be wanting."

Faltó a la promesa: He failed to his promise.
Me faltan cinco duros: I am short of five dollars.
N.B.—"Me hacen falta cinco duros" is "I need five dollars."

Guardarse de—"to take care" (to guard against).

It carries with it a negative meaning.

Me guardaré bien de hacerlo: I shall take care not to do it. ("I shall take care to do it" would be translated "cuidaré de hacerlo.")

Hacerse, Ponerse, Volverse, Llegar á ser, translate the English "to become," when this is not rendered by turning the English adjective into a verb, as—

Se hizo todo un inglés: He became quite an Englishman.
Se puso colorado: He became red in the face.
Se volvió loco de contento: He became mad with joy.
Llegó á ser famoso: He became famous.
Se enriqueció: He became rich.

Hacer (or mandar) hacer una cosa—"to have a thing done."

Me hice enviar los bultos: I had the packages sent to me.
Hice escribir una carta: I had a letter written.

Llevar—"to carry," "to wear."
Llevar á mal: To take amiss.
Llevarse bien con todos: To get on with everybody.
Llevarse chasco: To be disappointed.
Llévese V. estos valores: Take these securities with you.

Meter bulla—"to make a noise," "to shout," "to clamour."

Volver (to return, i.e., to come or go again) is used before an infinitive to denote a repetition of its action—

Volver á decir: To say again.
Decir otra vez: To say again.
Decir de nuevo: To say again.

VOCABULARY.

=abonar=, to speak for a person, to recommend
=actas=, deeds (writings)
=amén de=, besides
=apenas=, barely, scarcely
*=arrepentirse=, to repent
=bergantín=, brig
=concluir un trato=, to strike a bargain
=contramaestre de filatura=, master spinner
=conveniente para=, becoming
=cregüelas=, osnaburgs
=crespones=, crêpons
*=dar cuenta=, to report
=destajista=, contractor
=discutir=, to discuss
=dobladillo de ojo (con)=, hemstitched
=empeñar=, to engage
=en regla=, in order
=escrito=, writing (n.), letter
*=exponerse á=, to expose oneself to, to encounter
=fidedigno=, trustworthy
=fracasar=, to fall through
=goleta=, schooner
=hundimiento=, subsidence
=pañuelos de luto=, black-bordered handkerchiefs
*=poner pleito=, to bring an action
=posición=, position, standing
*=probar fortuna=, to try one's luck
=proceder= (n.), proceeding, behaviour
=redactar=, to draw up (deeds), to write out
=repulgados, dobladillados=, hemmed
=suelo=, ground, soil
=telas rizadas=, crimps
=vencer=, to win, to fall due

EXERCISE 1 (83).

Translate into English—

1. En contestación á su estimada carta pésanos (we are sorry) deberles notificar que hasta ahora no hemos podido dar con los crespones que nos han pedido.

2. Obra en nuestro poder su apreciable del 3 del que rige con orden para cregüelas, pañuelos de algodón de luto, dobladillados (or repulgados)
y pañuelos de lino con dobladillo de ojo, y no dejaremos de darles cuenta detallada de lo que hayamos hecho, en nuestro próximo escrito.

3. El destajista echó a construir pero abandonó la obra á medio hacer.

4. Estamos en que se arrepintió de su contrato y nuestros Directores están por ponerle pleito.

5. Escriben de Brasil que les hace falta un contramaestre de filatura.

6. Conozco á un joven que debería ser competente pero me guardaré de empeñarle sin obtener informes fidedignos que le abonen.

7. De resultas de un hundimiento en el suelo sufrió daños de importancia el cuerpo del edificio amén de haberse caído la chimenea.

8. La goleta y el bergantín temen exponerse al fuerte viento.

EXERCISE 2 (84).

Translate into Spanish—

1. He wants to make us believe that the price at which he sold them barely covers his cost.

2. I do not care whether he gains or loses; I have ceased to take an interest in his affairs.

3. Now I understand, and I shall not fail to take care not to do it in future.

4. He started laughing, and there the matter ended (así se acabó la cosa).

5. He was on the point of striking a bargain with him, but it fell through at the last moment and now everything is to be discussed again.

6. He failed to present himself at the creditors' meeting, and he has therefore forfeited (perdido) his right of opposition (de oponerse).

7. He became very cautious after the experience he had.

8. He became very rich by his fortunate deals (especulaciones) in railway shares.

9. The bill falls due on the 15th inst.

10. This proceeding is not becoming a firm of your standing.

11. The deeds are not in order: please do not take amiss my requesting you to have them drawn up again.

12. I expected to see him, but I was disappointed.

13. Do not clamour so much, and try your luck again.

LESSON XLIII.
(Lección cuadragésima tercera.)

THE VERB (contd.).

The English verbs "shall," "will," "should," "would," "may," "might,"
when used as auxiliary verbs (viz., as mere signs of the future tense, conditional or subjunctive moods respectively) are rendered by the corresponding terminations of the Spanish verb[195]—

I shall go: Iré.
Thou wilt go: Irás.
We should go: Iríamos.
You would go: Vs. irían.
I hope he may succeed: Deseo que tenga buen éxito.
I wished he might come: Deseaba que viniese.

[Footnote 195: "Shall," "should," "will," "would," are also rendered by the Subjunctive Mood when according to the Spanish rules the verb should be Subjunctive. Example—

It is (was) possible that he will (would) have to work late:
Es (era) posible que tenga (tuviese) que trabajar tarde.]

When they are used as principal verbs they are translated by Deber (shall, should), Querer (will and would), and Poder (may and might), as—

You shall go: V. debe ir.
You may speak: V. puede hablar.
I will not buy more: No quiero comprar más.
You should accept our terms: Vs. deberían[196] aceptar nuestras
condiciones.

We would willingly see that done: Quisiéramos mucho verlo hacer.

[Footnote 196: The Imperfect Indicative debía, podía, quería, is often used for "debería," "podría," and "querría." This occurs also with other verbs, colloquially: Yo se lo daba si estuviese aquí for Yo selo daría si estuviese aquí.]

"Can" is translated by the pres. or future of Poder—

I can do it now: Puedo hacerlo ahora.
I can do it next month: Puedo or Podré hacerlo el mes próximo.

"Could" is translated by the imperfect indicative or the conditional mood of Poder—

I did it whenever I could: Lo hacía siempre que podía.
I could do it if I had the necessary means: Podría hacerlo si tuviese los medics necesarios.

"Would," meaning "used to," is, of course, translated by the imperfect indicative—

When he was in Paris he would sit in the cafés for hours: Cuando estaba en Paris se pasaba horas enteras en los cafés.

"Should he do," etc., is translated "if he should do," etc. (si lo hiciese).[197]

"If I were to go" is translated "if I went" (si fuese).

[Footnote 197: After si (if—Conditional) the verb is present indicative or imperfect subjunctive (see Lesson XXIV).]

"Can" is translated by saber when the faculty expressed is the result of learning, as—

Can you play the piano? ¿Sabe V. tocar el pianoforte?

"To be to," "to have to" are translated by Tener que, Haber de or Deber (see Lesson XXVII), as—

Who is to write out that invoice? ¿Quién ha de (debe) escribir aquella
factura?
I have to be very careful: He de ser muy cuidadoso.
I shall have to work hard: Tendró que trabajar fuerte.

"Let" as a principal verb is translated by dejar or permitir; as an auxiliary it corresponds to the Spanish imperative mood—

Let him speak: Déjele V. hablar, or Permítale V. que hable.
Let him ask for it and we shall give it to him: Pídalo (or que lo pida) y se lo daremos.

"To let (or hire) a house"—"alquilar (una casa)"—I have let my house:
He alquilado mi casa.

VOCABULARY.

=abogar por=, to plead for
=acoger=, to receive
=agasajar=, to welcome
=apurar=, to clear up, to investigate
=arrancar=, to wrench, to pull out, also to date from
*=atender á=, to attend
=clases nocturnas=, evening classes
=condiciones=, terms
*=convenir en=, to agree, to acquiesce
=cruzados=, twills[198]
=culpado=, at fault
*=despedir=, to dismiss
=desteñido=, faded
=detallado=, detailed, circumstantial
=estrenar=, to use or wear a thing for the first time
=estrenarse=, to commence, to make a start
=farditos=, trusses[199]
=fiados, book debts
=el idioma, la lengua=, language
=malversar=, to embezzle
=nansús=, nainsooks
=negociado=, division (Gov. Office)
=oportunidad=,, opportunity, chance
=pagaré=, promissory note, bill
=parte=, report
=perfeccionar=, to perfect
=por poder=, per pro
=tiro, largura=, length
=tomar vuelo=, to develop, to increase

[Footnote 198: Also Aterlizados, asargados, diagonales.]

[Footnote 199: Small bales.]

EXERCISE 1 (85).

Translate into English—

1. Quiso acogerme generosamente en su casa, en donde fuí atendido y agasajado durante el tiempo de mi estancia en X.

2. Le agradecería de veras una orden pues aun no me he estrenado hoy, y
V. debería dármela pues me la tiene prometida.

3. Los cruzados y los nansús se han puesto en farditos y estos se han empacado cada cuatro en un fardo.

4. Avisamos á Vs. el envío por correo, de cortes (cuttings) de toda la serie y observarán que son telas de muy buena vista (very sightly) y se pueden pedir en cualquier tiro.

5. Les aconsejamos no tarden en colocar sus pedidos para lo que necesiten.

6. Este negocio tomará mucho vuelo con el tiempo (in time).

7. Arrancan de muchos años los abuses que se cometen en ese Negociado.

8. Se han malversado cantidades de importancia.

9. El Ministro está ocupado en apurar los hechos, estando decidido á castigar severamente á los que resultarán culpados.

EXERCISE 2 (86).

Translate into Spanish—

1. I shall make out a list of my book debts.

2. You would break (faltaría á) your word if you did not plead for him.

3. He should explain his conduct, otherwise he will be dismissed.

4. We shall oblige (contentar) him, but it must be under certain conditions.

5. He is sending me to the Court (Tribunal) that I may watch (seguir)
that interesting case (proceso).

6. He sent his nephew here that he might learn our business methods
(métodos comerciales) and perfect his knowledge of the English language.

7. You may see for yourself (V. mismo) that the state of the market will not justify (no justifica) buying (el comprar) at present.

8. They might be a little easier in their dealings.

9. Can you claim an indemnity for non-fulfilment of contract?

10. They could square up the account by signing[200] promissory notes at
4 and 6 months' time.

11. They ought to forewarn their agents.

12. He would insist on saying we were in the wrong.

13. Should they acquiesce to the terms of the arrangements, we authorise you to sign it per pro.

14. Had he known the cloth was faded he would not have taken receipt of
(admitido) the bale.

15. Mr. Gómez is to visit the Estate (terreno) and send a circumstancial report.

16. I shall let him attend (asistir á) the evening classes at the
Manchester School of Technology.

17. It is only fair that (es muy justo que) he should have a chance of mastering (aprender á fondo) the art of spinning and weaving.

18. If he would only devote (si á lo menos dedicase) his attention (to it).

[Footnote 200: See page 162.]

LESSON XLIV.
(Lección cuadragésima cuarta.)

THE ADVERB.

The natural position of the adverb is after the verb, as—

El convendría de muy buena gana: He would willingly consent.

But a great liberty is allowed in this respect, as—

Seguramente firmaría el endoso: He would certainly sign the endorsement.

Siempre se lo voy repitiendo: I keep always repeating it to him.

Mucho is the only adverb which does not generally admit of "very" for the superlative; it takes ísimo instead. However "muy mucho" is found, especially when used jocularly.

To the adverbs given in Lesson XXVIII we add the following adverbs and adverbial locutions—

Á la noche (at night)
Á manos llenas (profusely)
Á ojos cegarritas (blindly)
Á ojos vistas (obviously)
Á pie juntillas (firmly)
Á rienda suelta (recklessly)
Á todo escape (at full speed)
Ayer tarde or por la tarde (yesterday evening)
Cuanto antes (as soon as possible)
De buena, mala gana (willingly, unwillingly)
De buenas á buenas (willingly)
De buenas á primeras (at first sight, straight away)
De hoy en quince (to-day fortnight)
Hoy hace quince días (just a fortnight ago)
De propósito (on purpose)
De tiempo en tiempo (from time to time)
Día sí, y otro no (every other day)
Mañana por la mañana (to-morrow morning)
Nunca jamás (never—emphatic)
Para siempre jamás (for ever and ever)
Pasado mañana (the day after to-morrow)
Por mal (bien) que (however badly (well))
Por poco (nearly, but for little)
Tal cual vez (once in a while)

EXAMPLES—

Nunca jamás en la vida he hecho esto: Never in my life have I done this.

Por poco se rompió la cabeza: He nearly broke his head.
Por mal que le salga: Badly as it may turn out for him.

Adverbs ending in mente are often substituted by con with a noun, as—

Con lujo—lujosamente (luxuriantly).
Con dificultad—difícilmente (with difficulty).

This, of course, is found also in English but is more frequently done in
Spanish.

Recientemente is generally abbreviated into recién before a past participle, as—

El recién llegado (the newly arrived).
El recién venido (the newly arrived).
El recién nacido (the new born).

Aquí, acá, allí, allá.

Aquí and allí are more circumscribed than acá and allá—

Venga acá cuando necesite algo: Come here when you want anything.
Allá, en su tierra esto se hace: There in your country this is done.
Aquí estoy y aquí me quedo: Here I am, and here I remain.
Ponga este paquete allí: Put this packet there.

Ahí—there (near the person spoken to[201]) also means your city, your country, there (in correspondence).

[Footnote 201: Rule not strictly observed.]

Si los precios ahí son razonables podrá hacerse mucho negocio: If prices over there are reasonable, a large business can be done.

Por ahí = about.

¿Cuántos había? ¿40? Por ahí: How many were there? 40? About that number.

No is used often redundantly—

Mejor es sufrir que no hacer sufrir: It is better to suffer than to make others suffer.

Temo que no llegue demasiado temprano[202]: I am afraid he will arrive too early.

[Footnote 202: This sentence is ambiguous, because it might mean the opposite: Temo que no llegue demasiado temprano sino demasiado tarde.
The tone of the voice must be relied upon or a different construction must be used.]

=Venir (to come)=.

_Pres. Part., _Viniendo.
_Pres. Indic., _Vengo, vienes, viene,—,—, vienen.
_Pres. Subj., _Venga, vengas, venga, vengamos, vengáis, vengan.
_Imper. Mood, _Ven …
_Past Def., _Vine, viniste, vino, vinimos, vinisteis, vinieron.
_Fut. Indic., _Vendré, vendrás, vendrá, vendremos, vendréis, vendrán;

VOCABULARY.

=á ciegas, á ojos cegarritas=, blindly
=agotar=, to drain, to exhaust
=al amor de=, near, beside
=aparentar=, to appear
=basto=, common, inferior, coarse
=de bien á mejor=, better and better
=cabal=, upright, just
=de cabo á rabo=, from top to bottom rom end to end
=el efectivo=, the cash, the money
=en efectivo, en metálico=, in cash
=enterarse=, to get to know
=escuchar=, to listen
=esquela=, note
=etiqueta=, rótulo, ticket, label
=hombre llano=, sincere, rough-and-ready man
=loza=, crockery
=medida=, measurement
=medrar=, to prosper
*=ponerse á sus anchas=, to make oneself comfortable
=porcelana=, china
=quebranto=, mishap, misfortune, loss
*=salir en=, to come up to
=silla=, chair
=solicitado=, sought after
=un si es no es=, just a trifle
*=venir á menos=, to come down in the world, to decline
=vidriado=, glassware

EXERCISE 1 (87).

Translate into English—

1. Desde nuestra última revista no se puede decir que haya habido mucha variación en nuestro mercado aunque se nota algo más de firmeza y los precios aparentan ser un si es no es más caros.

2. Siempre solicitados los géneros bastos á precios baratos.

3. Entregué la esquela al anciano señor quien, sentado al amor del fuego, la leyó de cabo á rabo y, como hombre llano que es me dijo de buenas á primeras que no queriendo obrar á ciegas, daría su contestación en un par (couple) de días.

4. ¿Sabía V. que la casa Fernández había venido tan á menos?

5. No, no me había enterado, la tuve siempre por casa fabricante de loza, porcelana, y vidriado, cuyos negocios iban de bien á mejor.

6. Medraron al principio pero ya han decaído mucho.

7. Lo siento de veras. Es muy de deplorar porque el Sr. Fernández es hombre muy cabal.

8. Invirtió una porción de dinero en el ferrocarril aereo (overhead) de
N.; eso también le causó algún quebranto.

9. Pobrecito, no le faltaba más (that was the last stroke).

10. ¡Qué[203] barato es esto!

[Footnote 203: Qué before an adjective = how. (Cuán can also be used.)]

EXERCISE 2 (88).

Translate into Spanish—

1. I would gladly accede to your request if it were in my power.

2. We are always impressing upon (llamando la atención de) our warehousemen the importance of marking the measurement on the tickets.

3. Besides being loose (fugitives) colours they are not half so (nada tan) bright as they should be.

4. They advertise profusely and from time to time they issue new illustrated catalogues.

5. Soon (cuanto antes) they will start (principiarán á) issuing them in foreign languages.

6. I never saw a better kept set of books (libros).

7. I was nearly caught in the India Rubber boom, but fortunately I managed to get off (pude librarme) without burning my fingers (cogerme los dedos).

8. Come here, my friend, and listen to me.

9. Here in England things are managed (se hacen) on a different basis altogether (de una manera enteramente distinta).

10. Take that chair there and make yourself comfortable.

11. How much do you require (le hace falta), £100?

12. About that.

13. I was afraid (que no) you were going to ask me for more and that would have drained all our available (que tenemos) cash.

14. How much will the packages come to?

15. Say (digamos) £100 averaging one with the other (calculando uno con otro).

LESSON XLV.
(Lección cuadragésima quinta.)

THE PREPOSITION.

One word should not be used in Spanish governed by two different prepositions, as—

He is an admirer of and a contributor to the "Times": Es admirador del
"Times" y colabora en ese periódico.

The man I spoke with and wrote to: El hombre con quien hablé y al cual escribí.

However, we find the same construction as in English in cases of antithesis, as—

Con ó sin él: With or without him.

El billete cuesta 20 pesetas desde ó hasta Madrid: The ticket is 20 ptas. from or to Madrid.

The Spanish Academy condemns this use, however.

As will have been noticed before, a preposition governing a word cannot be used after the word it governs, as—

The work[204] which I referred to: La obra á la cual referí.

[Footnote 204: Work, artistic, literary, scientific—"obra." Work, manual, or mental—"trabajo."]

The preposition con followed by an infinitive translates the English
"by," followed by the present participle—

Con enseñar se aprende: By teaching one learns.

The preposition desde refers to "distance of time or space," as—

He marchado desde mi casa: I walked from my house.

However, desde may be used instead of de before names of countries or cities—

Me escribieron desde Barcelona: They wrote me from Barcelona.

Para may be used together with con = "towards"—

Fué muy bueno conmigo, para mí, or para conmigo.

"En acabando[205] lo haré" has the meaning of "I shall do it as soon as I have finished."

[Footnote 205: En is the only preposition which may govern a pres.
participle, generally with the meaning given above.]

We add the following idiomatic uses of Por and Para to what we said about these two prepositions in Lesson XXIX:

Por may translate "on behalf of," "for the sake of," "in favour of,"
"during," "through"—

Habló por el proyecto de ley: He spoke in favour of the bill.
Se presentó por la casa: He appeared on behalf of the firm.
Por la paz y buena armonía concedemos lo que V. pide: For the sake of
peace we allow what you ask.
Les sirvió por cinco años: He served them during five years.
Trabaja por la mañana: He works during (in) the morning.
Vino por París: He came through Paris.
Cotizar por un artículo: To quote for an article.
Yo por mí (or por mi parte) prefiero comprar al contado: I, for one,
prefer to buy for cash.
Por[206] rico que sea, no tendrá suficientes recursos: No matter how
rich he is, he will not have sufficient means.
Es demasiado avaro por ser tan rico: for such a rich man, he is too
miserly.
Caro por caro prefiero géneros ingleses: If I have to pay a dear price,
I prefer English goods.
Por sí ó por no: In any case, should it be so or not.
Ir (venir) por: To go (come) for.
Enviar por el médico: To send for the doctor.
Por holgazán perdió el empleo: He lost his employment through laziness.
Por bién ó por mal: Willy-nilly.
Vendré por la Navidad: I shall come by Christmas.
Por si acaso: In case that.

[Footnote 206: Por has always this meaning before an adjective or adverb.]

No sirve para más: He is good for nothing else.
Venir para la Pentecostés: To come for Whitsuntide.
Esto no es para menos: The thing (or occasion) is worth it.
Para español (or por ser español) es muy alto: He is very tall for a
Spaniard.
Tener grande consideración para este hombre: To have great respect for
this man.
Dar pedidos para ferretería, ollería, y maquinaría: To give orders for
ironware, hollow-ware and machinery.
Es demasiado avaro para ser tan rico: He is too miserly to be so rich.

Sin—"without"—

Poseía £10,000 sin los bienes raíces que heredó de su padre:
He owned £10,000 besides the real property he inherited from his father.

Según—"according to"—

Según y como: That depends.

So instead of bajo is used in the following expressions—

So capa de: Under the cloak of.

So pretexto de: Under the pretext of.

And in a few other such phrases.

VOCABULARY.

=acabado, aderezo=, finish (cloth)
=acolchados=, quiltings
=admitir=, to admit, to accept
=agente exclusivo=, sole agent
=alfombradas=, carpetings
=á no ser así=, were it not so, otherwise
=anclar=, to anchor
=arreglo=, agreement
=bajista=, bearish (exchange)
=cablegrama=, cablegram, cable
=capataz=, foreman
=conceder=, to grant
=coquillos=, jeans
=disposición=, disposition, disposal
=empeñarse=, to pledge oneself
=en su ramo=, in your line
=exclusividad=, exclusive sale
=fama=, fame, reputation, name
=frazadas de algodón=, cotton blankets
=lento=, remiss
=nombrar=, to appoint
=palo de mesana=, mizzen mast
=palo mayor=, main mast
=por escrito=, in writing
=postergar=, to put off, to delay
=proveerse=, to supply oneself
=tapetes=, carpet rugs
*=tener inconveniente=, to have an objection
=tomar en consideración=, to take into consideration, to entertain
=trinquete=, foremast

EXERCISE 1 (89).

Translate into English—

1. Con ser abiertamente (manifestly) bajista la especulación, las acciones mineras se han sostenido.

2. Desde Barcelona ha llegado un radiograma avisando que había anclado en ese puerto el vapor "Cibeles" con el trinquete roto y el palo mayor y el de mesana también dañados.

3. El jefe es muy bondadoso para con sus empleados.

4. Dos cajas de coquillos y una de pañuelos de andrinópolis (turkey red)
nos vinieron por Burdeos (Bordeaux), los acolchados, las alfombradas, los tapetes y las frazadas de algodón se embarcaron por mar.

5. Por la buena fama de su casa no debería postergar por más tiempo el pago.

6. Por sí ó por no mejor sería proveerse.

7. El capataz fué al Director por órdenes.

8. Por bien ó por mal tendrá que admitir los géneros pues se han fabricado por su cuenta y tenemos su orden por escrito para ellos.

9. Se alarmó mucho, pues el asunto no era para menos.

10. Para género de algodón el acabado (or aderezo) es todo lo que se puede desear.

11. Por ser género de algodón esta tela es de muy buena vista.

12. Es demasiado barato para ser de lana.

13. Si desea V. obtener órdenes debe tener mucha consideración para los corresponsales.

14. No puedo prometerle entrega para 1° de Junio exactamente, pero haré por efectuarla por esa fecha.

15. ¿Conoce V. el refrán: "No hay mal que por bien no venga"? (It is an ill wind that blows nobody good.)

EXERCISE 2 (90).

Translate into Spanish—

1. This sample looks very nice for an imitation.

2. It being in your line, I thought I ought to give you the first chance
(hacerle la primera oferta) in case it would tempt you (por si acaso le animara á comprar).

3. To begin with you would have to engage the cloth to us (darnos la exclusividad).

4. I have no objection provided you guarantee a certain turnover
(venta).

5. He was appointed sole agent for the whole of Mexico through the recommendation of his brother-in-law, and his agreement with the firm is for 3 years certain (fijos).

6. That will bring him (le producirá) £500 a year if it brings him a penny (por lo menos).

7. Being such an important concern (casa) they do not pay their staff very handsomely (generosamente).

8. They are too remiss with (en) their payments to be such important people.

9. I very nearly pledged myself to grant him the exclusive sale of my article.

10. These are his instructions for the disposal of his goods

11. However clear they may be, we must have his cable confirmed by a letter.

12. Therefore we cannot entertain your offer for the present.

13. It cannot be helped, otherwise (Tenga paciencia, si fuese posible)
we would do everything for you.

LESSON XLVI.
(Lección cuadragésima sexta.)

THE PREPOSITION (contd.)

To the uses of Por must be added the following (optional)—

After the following verbs:

Agradecer (por) el favor: To be grateful or to be thankful for the favour.

Aguardar or esperar (por) alguno: To wait for somebody.

Pedir (por) una cosa: To ask for (request) something.

Preguntar (por) una cosa: To ask for (to inquire about) something.

He pagado por él cinco chelines or lo he pagado cinco chelines: I paid five shillings for it.

Buscar (por) alguno ó alguna cosa: To look for somebody or something.

Dispensar (por) el error: To excuse the error.

Further uses of the Spanish prepositions different from the English, and forming idioms—

A caballo (on horseback)
Á ciegas (blindly)
Á consecuencia de esto (in consequence of this)
Á deshora (inopportunely)
Á duras penas (with great efforts)
Á esconditas (covertly)
Á fe de caballero (upon the word of a gentleman)
Á gatas (on all fours)
Á hurtadillas (stealthily)
Á la española (in the Spanish fashion)
Á la mesa (at table)
Al antojo de uno (after one's fancy)
Á la tarde (in the afternoon)
A la verdad (in truth)
Al descuido y con cuidado (studiously careless)
Á lo largo del río (along the river)
Á lo que parece (to all appearances)
Hecho a máquina (made by machinery)
Á pie (on foot)
Á poco de escribir (shortly after having commenced writing)
Á propósito (opportunely, à propos)
Á regañadientes (reluctantly)
Á saberlo yo (had I known it)
Á sangre fría (in cold blood)
Á sus anchas, anchuras (at one's ease)
A tiro de cañón (within cannon shot)
Es más hábil que yo, con mucho (he is cleverer than I by far)
Con ser amigo y todo (although he be a friend)
Contra el norte (facing the north)
De año en ano (from year to year)
De balde (for nothing, gratis)
De bóbilis (without effort)
De broma (in jest)
De buenas á buenas (willingly)
De buenas a primeras (straight away)
De capa caída (crestfallen)
De contado (of course)
De día, etc. (by day, etc.)
De jaleo (on the spree)
De luto (in mourning)
De mejor en mejor (from better to better)
¡Ay or Infeliz de mí! (woe to me!)
De miedo (through fear)
Anteojos de oro (gold spectacles)
De patitas (on shanks' pony)
De peor en peor (from bad to worse)
De perillas (venir) (quite opportunely, à propos)
El picaruelo de Perico (that young rascal Perico)
De pies á cabeza (from head to foot)
De puntillas (on tiptoe)
De repente (suddenly)
Del todo (at all)
De veras (in truth)
Dos á dos (two by two)
Está en casa (he is at home)
En estas condiciones (under these conditions)
En señal de aprecio (as a mark of esteem)
Entrecano (gray-haired)
Entre dos aguas (doubtful, perplexed)
Entre la espada y la pared (between the devil and the deep sea)
Nos dió 5 pesetas para repartir entre yo[207] y mi hermano
(he gave us 5 pesetas to be divided between my brother and me)
Hasta la vista (good-bye for the present)
Hasta los animales tienen gratitud (even animals feel gratitude)
Sobre las diez (at about ten o'clock)
Tiene sobre los treinta (he is about thirty years old)
Sobre más 6 menos (a little more or less)
Tras la pérdida el escarnio (besides the loss the scoffing)

[Footnote 207: Entre is generally followed by the nominative case unless it means "to" as—Dijo entre sí. He said to himself.]

About different prepositions used in Spanish and English after certain verbs, see also Appendix V.

The following are the principal compound prepositions—

Acerca de (relating to, concerning)
Á despecho de (in spite of)
Á pesar de (in spite of)
Antes de (before—in point of time)
Cerca de (near)
Junto á (near)
Conforme á (according to)
Con respecto á (with respect to)
Respecto de (with respect to)
Debajo de (under)
Dentro de (inside)
Después de (after)
Encima de (on, or over)
En cuanto á (as to)
En frente de (opposite)
Frente á (opposite)
En lugar de (instead of)
En vez de (opposite)

VOCABULARY.

=acordonado=, corded
=agujas=, needles
=alechugado=, frilled
=alemaniscos=, linen damasks
=alfileres=, pins
=antojo=, whim, caprice
=árbitro=, arbitrator
=arreglado=, reasonable (price)
=arrollar=, to roll
=batas=, wrappers (ladies')
=bodega=, cellar, also hold (ship)
=chales=, shawls
=dedales=, thimbles
=desinteresarse=, to abandon
*=desplegar=, to unfold
=dictamen=, award, decision
=entrepuentes=, between decks
=festoneados=, scalloped
=gratificación=, gratuity
=guarniciones, adornos=, trimmings
=lanillas para banderas=, buntings
=listados de algodón=, cotton stripes
=logro=, attainment
=ovillos de algodón=, cotton balls
=pañol, carbonera=, bunker (ships')
=pintura=, paint
=rehusar=, to decline
=sábanas=, bed sheets
=subasta=, auction
=tablillas=, boards
=tablones=, planks
=terliz=, ticking
=terreno=, land, property
=trencilla=, braid

EXERCISE 1 (91).

Translate into English—

1. Agradezco (por) el interés demostrado á mi amigo y la actividad desplegada en facilitarle el logro de sus fines.

2. Hemos dado diez mil duros por este terreno y no lo hemos pagado demasiado caro.

3. No puede V. rehusar los alemaniscos y quedarse con los géneros para sábanas y los terlices, á su antojo.

4. Á la verdad las agujas y alfileres han resultado algo caros como también los dedales pero las trencillas, guarniciones, y ovillos de algodón son á precio muy arreglado.

5. Vino muy á deshora y á poco de haberse sentado nos declaró que no esperaría.

6. Estos chales á 4 chelines y estos listados de algodón á 5 peniques la yarda son de balde, no lo decimos de broma.

7. Accedió á nuestra propuesta de buenas á buenas y de buenas á primeras nos depositó la suma de 1,000 francos.

8. Los fondos austríacos van de peor en peor y por eso está nuestro parroquiano de capa caída.

9. En tales condiciones preferimos desinteresarnos del proyecto.

10. Estuvimos entre dos aguas por algún tiempo, pero una vez puestos entre la espada y la pared (once we are so hard pressed) no nos queda más sino hablar claro, y ¡lo dicho!

EXERCISE 2 (92).

Translate into Spanish—

1. They await the result of the inquiry (información).

2. We forward you the papers relating to the Arbitrator's award.

3. He paid for the Buntings 5d. a yard.

4. In consequence of your having outstepped (excedido) our instructions, we must decline all responsibility with respect to delivery.

5. We have put boards inside the pieces according to our usual custom; we did not know you wanted them rolled.

6. Our new offices will be next to the Oil and Paint Stores (almacén), and opposite the General Post Office (casa de correos).

7. The planks used under the bales for dunnage (la estiva) were sold almost for nothing, in spite of our request to hold them at our disposal.

8. The steamer can carry 4,000 bales a little more or less if she fills her holds and takes cargo between decks.

9. She will take that quite easily and a few hundred bales more in her bunkers.

10. As a mark of our appreciation (estima) we authorize a gratuity to the Captain of £5.

11. The salvage (salvamento) has been sold partly by auction and partly by private treaty.

12. To all appearances the corded and frilled wrappers are superior to the scalloped.

LESSON XLVII.
(Lección cuadragiésima séptima.)

THE CONJUNCTION.

Si (if and whether).

Si used for "whether" may be followed by a verb in any mood and tense as in English—

No sé si habrá buena cosecha este año: I do not know whether there will be a good crop this year.

No pudo, or supo, decirme si me entregaría los pagarés para la fecha convenida: He could not tell me whether he would be able to hand me the promissory notes for the date agreed upon.

Si used as the conditional "if," is followed by the verb in the present indicative or imperfect subjunctive, as—

Si viene hoy le pagaré: If he comes to-day, I shall pay him.

Si viene mañana le pagaré[208]: If he comes to-morrow I shall pay him.

Le dije que si viniese le pagaría: I told him that if he came I should pay him.

[Footnote 208: When the action refers to the future the "future subjunctive" may be used instead, but this is rarely done. It emphasises the uncertainty.]

The sense will determine the tense to be used.

Notice the following idiomatic uses of si (not conditional)—

Si soy (fuí) malo! Well, I am (was) wicked!
¡Si será (sería) tan necia! Can (could) she be so foolish!
¿Si vendría? I wonder will he come!
¡Si se lo había dicho yo mil veces! But I had told him so many times!

Other idiomatic uses of this si will be learnt by practice (all more or less pleonastic as in the above examples).

We have said that "but" is translated by sino after a negative unless a finite verb follows. Therefore, "Not to buy but to sell" is translated
"No comprar sino vender."

After a negative a finite verb may be preceded by sino que instead of pero in cases like the following examples—

No compró sino que vendió: He did not buy but (on the contrary) he sold.
No sólo que es barato sino que es de muy buena calidad:
Not only is it cheap, but it is (also) of a very good quality.

Ni … ni—"neither … nor" (same as all negative words) when following a verb requires No to precede the verb, as—

No acepta ni esto ni aquello: He accepts neither this nor that.

But—Ni esto ni aquello quiere aceptar.

Pues—"seeing that" or "since" is used often for "then," "but," "well"
(used as an interjection).

Pues que lo haga: Let him do it then.

Quiso desobedecerme, pues vera su falta: He would disobey me, but he will see his fault.

Pues (or pues bien) ¡que hay ahora! Well! what is the matter now?

We shall conclude the lesson with the different meanings of Ya (sometimes used also redundantly). They are given for the sake of completeness although Ya in its different uses belongs to different parts of speech—

Ya lo ha hecho: He has done it already.
Ya lo hará: He will do it yet.
Ya no se hace esto: This is done no longer.
Ya consienten, ya rehusan: Now they consent, now they refuse.
Ya consientan, ya rehusen: Whether they consent, etc.
Haré cuanto quieras si ya no me pides lo imposible:
I shall do anything you wish if you do not ask (unless you ask) me
for impossibilities.
Ya que escribió: Since (seeing that) he wrote.
Ya ve V.: You see now.
Ya voy: I am coming.
Ya se ve: It is evident.
Ya, ya: Yes, of course.

VOCABULARY.

*=abolir=, to abolish
*=advertir=, to warn
=alegar=, to allege
=al revés=, on the wrong side
=barnices=, varnishes
=barrica=, cask
=batista de algodón=, cambric
=baúl=, trunk
=betunes=, blacking
=bicicleta=, bicycle
=botines=, boots
=bramante=, twine
=bufandas=, mufflers
=buje=, hub
=cerradura=, lock
=chanclos=, goloshes
=cintos de seda=, silk sashes
=cinturones de cuero=, leather belts
=colchas de plumón=, down quilts
=consignatario=, consignee
=ejecutar=, to execute, to put through
*=hacer escala=, to call at (ships)
=llantas=, tyres
=maleta=, portmanteau
=mango=, handle
=marca=, brand, mark
=merma=, loss, leakage, shortage
=muebles de bejuco=, rattan furniture
=niquelado=, nickel-plated
*=perder cuidado=, not to worry
=rayos=, rays, spokes (wheels)
=reborde=, rim, flange
=remolacha=, beetroot
=rezumar=, to leak
=tejido elástico=, webbing
=zapatos=, shoes

EXERCISE 1 (93).

Translate into English—

1. No sé si habrá vapor de la Trasatlántica en fecha conveniente.

2. Si lo hay lo preferiré.

3. Esos vapores arrancan (start) de Liverpool y hacen escalas en varios puertos.

4. Ignoraba si habría servicio mensual en la línea de Canarias.

5. Mandé quinientas piezas Batista de algodón si la hubiese en existencia.

6. Quiero un baúl y una buena maleta de piel de Rusia con cerradura niquelada si las hay (or hubiere).

7. Pierda V. Cuidado ¡si las hay de toda especie!

8. ¿Si me venderá esos muebles de bejuco?

9. ¿Cómo no? si ya se lo tiene prometido.

10. El comercio del caucho se ha desarrollado mucho, se usa ahora en grande escala no sólo para llantas neumáticas de bicicletas y otras piezas (parts) sino también para gomas de automóviles.

11. No sólo tengo que cambiar el mango de mi bicicleta sino reemplazar los rebordes y componer el buje y algunos rayos de la rueda.

12. No es posible hallar botines de señoras y zapatos más elegantes que los de nuestra marca, ni se pueden conseguir más baratos en parte alguna.

13. Pues que me facture esos bramantes (twine) y ese yute y cáñamo.

14. Ya he colocado un pedido para bufandas y ya veré si me tiene cuenta pero no mande barnices ni betunes pues ya no trato en estos artículos.

15. Ya, ya. V. se ha dedicado ya á los géneros en pieza, si no me engaño, pues V. ya dice una cosa ya otra.

16. ¡Señor Juan! Ya voy (I am coming).

EXERCISE 2 (94).

Translate into Spanish—

1. Whether he puts through my order for leather belts and silk sashes or not, I do not much mind, but if he should oblige me, I would do him a good turn (le haría algún servicio) if the opportunity presents itself.

2. If the webbing and down quilts are good, I shall not begrudge (no me pesará) the advance in price.

3. Can it be true (si) that the gate or octroi duty (el impuesto de consumos) is going to be abolished in Spain?

4. Well (pues) the Government has presented a bill to that effect and I hope we shall soon see the octroi offices (fielatos) abolished.

5. The broker was warned that the quality was only fair average
(mediana).

6. Beetroot has been largely planted in the province of Granada and is now in great request for the sugar industry.

7. We strove hard (nos hemos esforzado mucho) to introduce the new brand and we have gained our point[209] at last.

8. The cloth was folded on the wrong side and we anticipate some difficulty on that score (por esta razón).

9. The consignees claim shortage (indemnización por falta de contenido).

10. They allege that the casks were leaking and that there was consequently a loss of thirty gallons (galones).

[Footnote 209: To gain one's point: Salir con la suya.]

VOCABULARY.

I. SPANISH-ENGLISH.

=A=

=abacá=, Manilla hemp
=abajo=, below
=abaratamiento=, cheapening
=abarcar=, to embrace, to include
=abarrotado=, glutted, cram full
=abastecerse=, to supply oneself
=abasto=, supply
=abedul=, birch
=abeto=, fir
=ablandar=, to soften
=abogado=, lawyer, solicitor, barrister
=abogar=, to plead
=abolir=, to abolish
=abonar=, to speak for, to recommend, to credit
=abordar=, to accost, to approach, to board
=abrigar=, to shelter, to cherish (hope)
=abril=, April
=abrir=, to open
=abrir agua=, to leak
=absolutamente=, absolutely
=abuso=, abuse
=acá, aquí=, here
=acabado=, finish (cloth)
=acabar=, to finish
=acabar de ..=., to have just
=acaudalado=, rich, wealthy
=acceder=, to accede
=accidente=, accident
=acciones=, actions, shares
=acciones preferences=, preference shares
=accionista=, shareholder
=aceite=, oil
=acerca de=, relating to
=acero=, steel
=acertar á=, to happen, to contrive
=acoger=, to admit, to receive
=acolchado=, quilting
=aconsejar=, to advise, to counsel
=acorazado=, iron-clad
=acordar=, to agree
=acordarse=, to remember
=acordonado=, corded
=acreditar=, to credit
=actas=, acts, deeds
=actitud=, attitude
=active=, active
=activo y pasivo=, assets and liabilities
=actual=, present, current, instant (month)
=acudir=, to attend, to have recourse to
=acusar=, to accuse, to show
=adecuado, proporcionado=, adequate
=aderezo=, finish (cloth)
=adeudar=, to debit
=adherir á=, to adhere to
=adjunto=, enclosed, herewith
=administrador=, manager (of a branch house, etc.)
=admitir=, to admit, to accept, to acknowledge
=adornos=, trimmings
=adquirir=, to acquire
=á duras penas=, with great effort
=advertir=, to notice, to warn
=aéreo=, overhead
=afanarse=, to exert oneself, to take much trouble
=aficionado á=, fond of
=aflojar=, to relax
=afortunadamente=, fortunately
=agasajar=, to welcome
=agencia=, agency
=agiotista=, stock-jobber
=aglomerar=, to agglomerate
=Agosto=, August
=agotar=, to drain, to exhaust
=agradable=, agreeable, pleasant
=agradar=, to oblige
=agradecer=, to thank, to be obliged for
=agrandar=, to enlarge
=agrícola=, agricultural
=agrio=, sour
=agrupación=, group, muster
=agua=, water
=agudo=, sharp, keen
=águila=, eagle
=aguja=, needle
=ahí=, there
=ahora=, now
=ahorrar=, to save, to economise
=aislado=, hedged in, isolated
=(lo) ajeno=, other people's property
=ajeno á=, averse to, foreign to
=ajo=, garlic
=ajustar=, to adjust
=ajuste=, adjustment
=á la larga=, in the long run
=á la verdad=, in truth
=albaricoque=, apricot
=alborear=, to dawn
=alcalde=, mayor
=alcista=, bull, bullish (exch.)
=alechugado=, frilled
=alegar=, to allege
=alegrar=, to gladden
=alegrarse=, to rejoice
=alejarse=, to go away
=alemanisco=, linen damask
=alerta=, alert
=alfiler=, pin
=alfombra=, carpet
=algo=, something, anything, somewhat, rather
=algodón=, cotton
=algodón disponible=, spot cotton
=algodonero (mercado)=, cotton market
=alguno=, some, any
=aliento=, courage
=alistar=, to enlist
=allá, allí=, there
=allanar=, to level, to facilitate
=allí, allá=, there
=alma=, soul
=almacén=, warehouse
=almacenero=, warehouseman
=almacenes fiscales=, bonded warehouses
=al menos=, at least
=alquilar=, to rent, to hire, to give or take on lease
=al revés=, on the wrong side
=altos hornos=, blast furnaces, foundry
=aludir á=, to allude, to hint
=un alza=, a rise (price)
=una alza=, a rise (price)
=amabilidad=, kindness
=amanecer=, to dawn
=amar=, to love
=amargo=, bitter
=amarillo=, yellow, buff
=ambos=, both
=á medida que=, in proportion as
=amedrentar=, to frighten
=á mejor andar=, at best
=amén de=, besides
=á menos que=, unless
=á menudo=, often i
=americana=, coat, jacket
=amigo=, friend
=amistad=, friendship
=amistoso=, friendly
=amo=, master
=amontonar=, to heap up, to pile up
=amor=, love
=amplio=, ample
=añadir=, to add
=ancho=, width, wide
=anclar=, to anchor
=andar=, to walk, to go
=Andrinópolis (pañuelos de)=, Turkey red (handkerchiefs)
=año=, year
=anochecer=, to grow dark
=ansioso de=, anxious, eager to
=anteayer=, the day before yesterday
=anterior=, anterior, previous
=antes (de)=, before (time), formerly
=anticipatión=, anticipation
=anticipo=, advance
=antiguo=, ancient, old
=antojo=, caprice, whim
=anular=, cancelar, to cancel
=anunciar=, to advertise
=apacible=, mild (colour)
=apagado=, extinguished, quiet
=apagarse=, to go out (fire)
=aparecer=, to appear, to make one's appearance
=aparentar=, to show outwardly
=apelar=, to appeal
=apenas=, scarcely
=apertura=, opening
=á pesar de=, in spite of
=apetecer=, to desire, to covet
=aplazar=, to postpone
=á plazos=, by instalments
=apreciar=, to appreciate
=aprender=, to learn
=apremiar=, to press, to urge
=apresto=, finish (cloth)
=apresurar=, to hasten (a), to urge
=apresurarse=, to hasten (n)
=aprovecharse=, to take advantage, to avail oneself of
=aproximarse=, to approach, to draw near
=apurar=, to exhaust, to investigate, to purify
=apuro=, embarrassment
=aquel, that
=aquí=, here
=arado=, plough
=arancel=, Custom House tariff
=árbitro=, arbiter, umpire
=árbol=, tree
=árbol de eje=, axle-shaft
=archivos=, archives
=arduo=, arduous, difficult
=argüir=, to argue
=armadores=, shipowners
=armadura=, frame, framing (mach.)
=armario=, cupboard
=armas blancas=, side-arms
=armas de fuego=, fire-arms
=armazón de cama=, bedstead
=arpillera=, bagging
=arquitecto=, architect
=arrancar=, to squeeze out, to wrench, to start from
=arreglado=, reasonable
=arreglar=, to arrange, to settle
=arreglo=, arrangement
=arrepentirse=, to repent
=arriesgado=, dangerous
=arrollar=, to roll
=arroz=, rice
=asamblea=, meeting
=asargado=, twill
=ascensor=, lift, hoist
=asegurar=, to insure, to secure
=asentar=, to seat, to book (orders)
=asistir=, to assist, to attend
=asociación de obreros=, trade union
=asunto=, subject, matter, question, affair
=atajo=, short cut
=atañer=, to bear upon
=atención=, attention
=atender á=, to attend
=atendible=, plausible
=atenta (su)=, (your) favour
=aterlizado=, twill
=atizador=, poker
=atraer=, to attract
=atraicionar=, to betray
=atrasado=, overdue
=atravesar=, to cross
=atrevido=, bold, daring
=atribución=, attribution
=atribuir=, to attribute
=atropellar por=, to infringe, to run down
=aumento=, increase
=aunque=, although, even if
=automóvil=, motor-car
=avaro, avariento=, miser, miserly
=avena=, oats
=averia=, average, damage
=avergonzarse=, to be ashamed
=aviso=, advice, notice
=avistar=, to sight
=ayer=, yesterday
=ayudar=, to help
=azadas=, hoes
=azadones=, pick-axes
=azúcar=, sugar
=azuelas=, adzes
=azul=, blue

=B=

=baja=, decline, fall (in prices, etc.)
=bajá=, pasha
=bajar=, to go, to come down
=bajista=, bear, bearish (exch.)
=bajo cubierta=, under deck
=balde (de)=, gratis, for nothing
=balde (en)=, in vain, of no avail
=ballena=, whale
=bañar=, to wet, to bathe, to water
=banco=, bank, bench, desk
=banco de liquidación=, clearing-house
=barato=, cheap
=barba, barbas=, beard
=barbilla, barba=, chin
=barco, navío, buque=, ship, boat
=barniz=, varnish
=barrer=, to sweep
=barrica=, cask
=base=, basis
=bastante bien=, pretty well
=bastar=, to suffice, to be enough
=basto=, coarse, common, inferior
=bata=, wrap
=batista, batiste=, lawn
=baúl=, trunk
=bayeta=, baize
=beber=, to drink
=belleza=, beauty
=beneficio=, benefit
=benéfico=, beneficent
=benévolo=, benevolent
=bergantín=, brig
=berzas=, cabbages
=betún=, blacking
=biblioteca=, library
=bicicleta=, bicycle
=biela=, connecting rod
=bien=, well
=(el) bien=, (the) good
=bien estar=, well-being
=billar=, billiards
=bisabuelo=, great grandfather
=blanco=, white
=blanco (n)=, aim
=blando=, gentle, soft
=blanquear=, to bleach
=bobina=, bobbin
=boca=, mouth
=bocina=, megaphone
=bodega=, cellar, hold (ship)
=bola=, ball
=boletín=, form, slip, price list
=bolsa=, Exchange, Bourse
=bombas de aire=, air pumps
=bondadoso=, kind
=bonificar=, to make an allowance, a rebate
=bonito=, pretty
=bordado=, embroidered
=botas=, boots
=boticario=, chemist
=botines=, boots
=botón=, button
=bramante=, twine
=brazo=, arm
=brevedad=, brevity, shortness
=(á la mayor) brevedad=, as soon as possible
=brisa=, breeze
=brochado=, brocade
=buey=, ox
=bufanda=, muffler
=bufete de abogado=, lawyer's office
=buje=, hub
=bullir=, to boil
=bultos=, packages
=buque, barco, navío=, ship, boat
=buque á motor=, automóvil, motor-boat
=buque de vapor=, steamer
=buque de vela=, sailing vessel
=burlarse=, to make fun of, to trifle with
=bursátil (mercado)=, money market
=buscar=, to look for, to search
=buscarse=, to bring upon oneself

=C=

=cabal=, just, upright
=caballero=, señor, gentleman
=caballo=, horse
=caber=, to be able to contain, to be able to be contained
=cabeza=, head
=cabida=, room, space
=cable=, cable
=cablegrama=, cablegram
=cabo=, corporal, end
=cada=, each, every
=caer=, to fall
=caída=, fall (n.)
=café, coffee
=café, castaño=, brown (dyed)
=caja=, case, box
=cajero=, cashier
=calcetines, socks, half hose
=calcular, to calculate
=cálculo=, calculation
=caldera=, boiler
=caldero=, small cauldron, bucket
=caldos=, wines and oils (collectively)
=calidad=, quality
=callar=, to be silent, to abstain from saying
=calle=, street
=calor=, heat, warmth
=calorífero=, stove
=calzado=, footwear
=cama=, bed, bedstead
=cambiar=, to alter, to exchange
=cambio, los cambios=, change; the Bill Market
=camisa=, shirt
=(el) campo=, (the) country, (the) countryside
=campo=, field
=caña=, cane
=cáñamo=, hemp
=cancelar, anular=, to cancel
=canela=, cinnamon
=cansar=, to tire
=cantidad=, quantity (also amount)
=capataz=, foreman
=el capital=, the capital (money)
=la capital=, the capital (town)
=capitán=, captain
=cara=, face
=carbón (de piedra)=, coal
=carbón (vegetal)=, charcoal
=carbonera, pañol=, bunker
=carecer (de)=, to lack
=cargamento=, cargo
=cargar=, to load, to debit
=carne, carne seca=, flesh, meat, jerked beef
=carne en salmuera=, pickled beef
=caro=, dear, expensive
=carpeta=, writing pad
=carranclanes, guingas=, ginghams
=carril=, rail
=carriles, rieles, railes=, rails
=carro=, cart
=carta=, letter
=cartera=, pocket-book, portfolio
=cartero=, postman
=casa=, house, firm
=casaca=, coat, jacket
=casar=, to marry
=casarse=, to marry
=casillero=, pigeon-holes
=castaño, café=, brown (dyed)
=castellano=, Castillian, Spanish
=castigar=, to punish, to chastise
=catálogo=, catalogue
=caucho, goma elástica=, rubber
=cauteloso=, cautious
=cauto=, cautious
=cebada=, barley
=cebolla=, onion
=ceder=, to cede, to yield, to make over
=cédula=, warrant
=celebrar=, to be glad of
=celebrarse=, to be celebrated, to take place (meetings, etc.)
=célebre=, celebrated
=celeste=, heavenly, sky-blue
=cena=, supper
=cepillo=, brush, also plane
=cerca de=, near (prep.)
=cercano=, near (adj.)
=cerradura=, lock
=cerrar=, to close, to shut
=cerrar (con llave)=, to lock
=cerrar el trato=, to conclude the bargain
=certificar=, to certify, to register (letters, etc.)
=cerveza=, beer
=cestilla=, waste-paper basket
=ciego=, blind
=cielo=, heaven, sky
=cien, ciento=, hundred
=ciencia=, science, wisdom
=cierre=, lock-out
=cierto=, certain
=cifras=, figures
=cigarros, tabacos, puros=, cigars
=cigüeñal=, crank shaft
=cilindro=, cylinder, roller
=cima=, top
=cinta=, ribbon
=cinto=, sash
=cinturón=, belt
=circular=, to circulate, to go round
=citar=, to quote, to cite, to mention a passage, etc.
=citar ante los tribunales=, to summon
=ciudad=, city
=cizallas=, shears
=claramente=, clearly
=claras (a las)=, openly, clearly
=claro=, clear, clearly, light (colour)
=claro y redondo=, quite openly
=clavel=, carnation
=clavos=, nails, cloves
=cliente=, client, customer
=clientela=, custom, clientèle, connection
=clima (el)=, climate
=climatológico=, climatic
=cobrar=, to charge, to collect (money)
=cobre=, copper
=cocer=, to bake, to cook
=codicia=, greed
=codiciar=, to covet
=coger=, to catch, to capture
=col=, cabbage
=colcha de plumón=, down quilt
=colección=, collection, set (of patterns)
=colgar=, to hang
=colmo=, climax, record
=colocar=, to place
=coloniales=, colonial produce
=color firme, sólido=, fast colour
=color falso, fugitive=, loose colour
=coloridos=, colourings
=columna=, column
=comanditar=, to finance
=comarca=, region, district (of a country)
=comedido=, considerate, thoughtful
=comenzar=, empezar, to commence
=comer=, to eat
=comercial=, commercial
=comerciante=, negociante, merchant
=comercio=, commerce, trade
=comisionista=, commission agent
=como, ¿cómo?= as, how?
=compañía anónima (por acciones)=, limited company
=compensar=, to compensate, to make good
=competidor, contrincante=, competitor, neighbour
=complacer, agradar, favorecer=, to oblige
=completo=, complete, full
=compra=, purchase
=comprar=, to buy
=comprender=, entender, to understand
=comprometerse=, to compromise, to commit oneself, to prejudice, to undertake
=común=, common
=concebir=, to conceive
=conceder=, to grant
=concejo, cabildo, ayuntamiento, municipality
=concerner=, to concern
=concisamente=, concisely
=condiciones=, terms
=conducir=, to lead
=conducta=, conduct, behaviour
=con el corazón en la mano=, quite candidly
=conexiones=, connections, couplings
=confeccionar=, to make up
=conferencia=, lecture
=confesar=, to confess
=confianza=, confidence, trust
=confiar (á)=, to entrust
=confiar (en)=, to trust
=(de) conformidad (con)=, in accordance with, agreeable to
=conforme a=, according to
=conocer=, to know a person, an object
=conocimiento, conocido=, acquaintance
=conocimiento=, bill of lading
=consabido=, in question
=conseguir, obtener=, to get, to obtain, to succeed in
=consejo=, advice
=conservas alimenticias=, preserves
=considerar=, to consider
=consignación=, consignment
=consignar=, to consign, to record
=consignatario=, consignee
=consumidor=, consumer
=contado (al)=, (for) cash
=con tal que=, provided that
=contar=, to count, to relate
=contar con=, to calculate, to reckon upon
=(el) contenido=, the contents
=contentar=, to oblige
=contento=, content, contentment
=contestar, responder=, to answer, to reply
=continuamente=,, continually
=continuar=, to continue
=contra, en contra de=, against
=contrabando=, contraband
=contramaestre de filatura=, master spinner
=contramandar, revocar=, to countermand, to revoke
=contrario=, unfavourable, contrary, adverse
=contratiempo=, hitch
=contrato=, contract, written agreement
=contribuir=, to contribute
=contrincante, competidor=, competitor, neighbour
=convencer=, to convince
=conveniente=, convenient, suitable
=convenio=, agreement
=convenir=, to agree, to suit
=convocar=, to call together (to a meeting)
=copa, sombrero de=, silk hat
=copiador=, copy book
=coquillos=, jeans
=cordobán=, morocco leather
=correas=, belts (machine), belting
=corredor=, broker
=correo=, the post
=correr=, to run
=correrse=, to make a slip of the tongue
=correspondencia=, correspondence
=corresponder a las necesidades=, to meet the requirements
=corresponsal=, correspondent
=corrido=, acute, artful
=corriente=, current, inst.
=cortapluma=, penknife
=cortarse=, to cut oneself, to stop short (in middle of speech)
=corte=cutting
=cortésmente=, politely, courteously
=corto=, brief, short
=cosa=, thing
=cosecha=, harvest, crop, harvest time
=costa=, coast
=coste, flete y seguro (c.f.s.)=, c.i.f., cost, insurance, freight
=costumbre=, custom, habit
=cotización=, quotation
=cotizar=, to quote (prices)
=crédito=, credit
=creer=, to believe, to think
=cregüelas=, osnaburgs
=crema=, cream
=crespolinas=, crimps
=criada=, maidservant
=criado=, manservant
=croquis=, sketch
=cruzados=, twills
=cuadritos=, checks
=cuadro=, picture, table (figures)
=cualquiera=, any (affirm.) =cualquiera=, whoever, whichever
=cuando=, when
=cuandoquiera (que)=, whenever
=cuantioso=, abundant, ample
=cuarto=, apartment, room, quarter
=cuarto=, fardín, farthing, a trifling amount
=cúbico=, cubic
=cubrir, cubierto=, cover, covered
=cucharas=, spoons
=cuchilla=, knife
=cuenta=, account, statement
=cuenta de venta=, account sales
=cuenta simulada, pro= forma account
=cueros=, hides
=cuerpo=, body
=cuesta=, slope
=cuestión=, question
=cuidadosamente=, carefully
=cuidar=, to take care
=cuidarse=, to take care of oneself
=culpa=, fault, blame
=culpado=, at fault
=cumplir (con)=, to fulfil, to accomplish
=cuñada=, sister-in-law
=cuñado=, brother-in-law
=cuota=, quota
=cuyo=, whose

=CH=

=chaconadas=, jaconets
=chal=, shawl
=chaleco=, vest, waistcoat
=charla=, prattle, gossip
=chanclos=, goloshes
=chapa=, plate (metal)
=chelín=, shilling
=cheque=, cheque
=chillones=, gaudy (colours)
=chimenea=, chimney
=chocolate=, chocolate
=chucherías=, pretty trifles

=D=

=damasco=, damask
=dañar=, to damage
=daño=, damage, injury, breakdown
=dar=, to give
=dar aviso al proprietario=, to give notice to leave
=dar cuenta=, to report
=dar en el clavo=, to hit it
=dar las gracias=, to give thanks
=darse á partido=, to yield, to submit
=dátiles=, dates
=debajo (de)=, under
=deber=, to owe, must
=debido á=, owing to
=de buena tinta (tener)=, from a good source (to have)
=decadencia=, decadence
=decididamente=, decidedly
=decidir, decidirse=, to decide, to make up one's mind
=decir=, to say, to tell
=declamar=, to declaim
=declarar=, to declare
=declararse en quiebra=, to file one's petition in bankruptcy
=decretar=, to decree
=dedal=, thimble
=dedicarse=, to devote oneself
=defecto=, defect, imperfection
=definir=, to define, also to settle
=definitivo=, definite
=dejar=, to leave, to let
=dejar sin efecto=, to cancel (orders, etc.)
=delegado=, delegate
=delicado de salud=, in indifferent health
=delinquir=, to commit a delinquency
=demanda y oferta=, supply and demand
=demandar=, to demand
=demasiado=, too, too much
=de miedo que=, lest
=de modo que=, so that
=demora=, delay
=demostrar confianza á=, to show confidence in
=dentro (de)=, inside, within
=depender (de)=, to depend (upon)
=dependiente=, clerk
=deplorar=, to deplore
=depósito=, deposit, depôt, store
=deprimir=, to depress
=derecho=, right, straight, customs, duty
=desanimado=, lifeless, stagnant (market)
=desanimar (se)=, to disconcert, to feel discouraged
=desarme=, disarmament
=desarrollar=, to develop
=descarga=, discharge, unloading
=descomponer=, to put out of gear
=desconcertar=, to put out, to upset
=descuidar=, to neglect
=desdichado=, unfortunate, unhappy
=desear=, to wish
=desembarcar=, to load
=deseoso=, eager, wishful
=desfavorable=, unfavourable
=desgracia=, misfortune
=deshacerse (de)=, to get rid of
=deshonra=, dishonour
=desinteresarse=, to abandon
=deslumbrar=, to dazzle
=despacho, escritorio, oficina=, office
=despacio=, slowly
=despedida (aviso de)=, dismissal (notice of)
=despejar=, to clear
=desperdiciar=, to waste
=despertar=, to wake up
=desplegar=, to unfold
=despreciable=, despicable
=después=, after, afterwards
=destajista=, contractor
=desteñir=, to fade
=detalles=, details
=detenidamente=, at length
=detallado=, detailed
=detrás=, behind
=deuda=, debt
=devanarse los sesos=, to rack one's brains
=devoción=, devotion
=devolver=, to return, to give or send back
=(el) día=, the day
=diagonales=, twills
=diario=, day book
=días de estadía=, lay days
=días de contra estadía=, days of demurrage
=dibujos, diseños=, designs
=diccionario=, dictionary
=dichoso=, lucky
=Diciembre=, December
=dictamen=, award, decision
=dientes=, teeth
=diferente=, different
=diferir=, to defer, to postpone
=difícil=, difficult
=dificultad=, difficulty, also objection
=difunto=, late, deceased
=diligencia=, diligence
=diligentemente=, diligently
=(un) dineral=, (a) mint of money
=dinero=, money
=dinero efectivo=, cash, ready money
=Dios=, God
=dique=, dock
=dirección=, address, direction
=dirigir=, to direct
=dirigirse=, to address oneself
=discípulo=, pupil
=discreto=, discreet, sensible
=disculpar=, to excuse
=discutir=, to discuss
=diseños, dibujos=, designs
=diseñador=, draughtsman
=disfrutar (de)=, to enjoy
=disgustado=, annoyed, disgusted, displeased
=dispensar=, to excuse
=disponer=, to dispose, to arrange
=disponible=, available, spot (cotton)
=disposición=, disposition, disposal, instruction
=distinguir=, to distinguish
=distinto=, different
=distrito=, district
=disturbado=, disturbed, upset
=disturbio=, disturbance
=divertirse=, to enjoy oneself
=doblar, duplicar=, to double, to duplicate
=dobladillado=, hemmed
=con dobladillo de ojo=, hemstitched
=docena=, dozen
=doctrina=, doctrine, knowledge
=documento=, document
=doler=, to hurt, to ache, to pain
=dolor=, pain, sorrow
=dolor de cabeza=, headache
=doloroso=, painful
=domicilio=, residence, registered office of a company
=Domingo=, Sunday
=dominio=, dominion, control
=donde (¿dónde?)=, where
=dondequiera que=, wherever
=dormir=, to sleep
=dormirse=, to fall asleep
=dril=, drill
=duda=, doubt
=dudar=, to doubt, to question
=duplicar, doblar=, to duplicate, to double
=durante=, during
=durar=, to last

=E=

=echar=, to throw, to cast
=echar á perder=, to spoil, to ruin, to wreck
=echar al correo=, to post
=edificio=, local, building
=efectuar=, to effect
=ejecutar=, to execute
=ejército=, army
=elaborar=, to elaborate
=elegantemente=, elegantly, stylishly
=elegir, escoger=, to choose, to select
=elevar=, to raise, to enhance, to put up
=embajador=, ambassador
=embarcar=, to embark, to ship
=embarque=, shipment
=embrollar=, to entangle, to cheat
=emisión=, issue
=emitir=, to issue
=empacar=, to pack
=empeñar=, to engage, to pawn, to pledge
=empeño (tener)=, to be earnest, anxious about anything
=empeños=, obligations, engagements
=empeoramiento=, turn for the worse, deterioration
=empezar, comenzar=, to commence
=emplear=, to employ
=emplearse=, to be employed, used for
=emprendedor=, enterprising
=empresa=, undertaking, concern, enterprise
=empréstito=, loan
=en breve=, shortly
=encaje=, lace
=encaminar=, to forward
=encargarse (de)=, to take charge
=encarnado=, red
=en caso que=, in case
=encina, roble=, oak
=encojerse=, to shrink
=encojido=, shrunk, shrivelled
=en contra de=, against
=encontrar=, to meet, to find
=encuadernar=, to bind (books)
=endosar=, to endorse
=en efectivo, en metálico=, in cash
=Enero=, January
=enfadado=, angry
=enfermo, malo=, ill
=enfurecido=, furious, infuriated
=engañifa=, trick
=engranaje=, gearing
=en latas=, canned
=en regla=, in order
=ensartapapeles=, file
=ensartar=, to file papers, to string beads
=ensayo=, trial, proof, venture
=en seguida=, at once
=enseñanza=, teaching
=enseñar=, to teach, to show
=entender, comprender=, to understand
=entenderse de=, to be a judge of
=enterarse=, to get to know
=entero (por)=, in full
=entonces=, then, at that time
=entrante, próximo=, next
=entrar (en)=, to enter
=entre=, between, amongst
=entrega=, delivery
=entregar=, to deliver, to hand (personally)
=entrepuentes=, between decks
=enviar, mandar=, to send
=envidia=, envy
=envió=, shipment
=época=, epoch, time, period
=equidad=, equity, fairness, fair dealing
=equipo=, equipment
=equitativo=, fair
=equivocación=, mistake
=equivocarse=, to make a mistake, to be mistaken
=error=, mistake, error
=escala=, ladder, scale
=escala (hacer)=, to call at (steamers)
=escandaloso=, scandalous, shocking
=escaño=, stool
=escapar, huir=, to escape
=escarcha (tornado por la)=, frost-bitten
=escarmentar=, to take warning
=escoba=, broom
=escoger, elegir=, to choose, to select
=escribir (se)=, to write, to write to each other
=escrito=, letter, writing (n.)
=escritor=, writer
=escritorio=, writing desk, office
=escuchar=, to listen
=es decir, á saber=, viz.
=ese, a, o=, that
=esfuerzo=, effort
=espada=, sword
=espalda=, shoulder
=espaldas=, back
=español=, Spanish
=espantarse=, to be frightened
=especias=, spices
=especie=, species, kind, rumour, news
=especulación=, deal, speculation
=esperar=, to hope, to wait for, to expect
=espeso=, thick
=esposo-a=, husband, wife
=esquela=, note
=establecer (se)=, to establish, to establish oneself
=estación, temporada=, season
=estadística=, statistics
=estallar=, to break out, to burst
=estampar=, to print (cloth)
=estancia=, stay
=estante=, bookshelf
=estaño=, tin
=estar, estarse=, to be
=este,-a,-o=, this
=este=, east
=estima=, appreciation, esteem
=estiva=, stowage
=estrenar=, to use or wear for the first time
=estrenarse=, to make a start
=estudiar=, to study
=estufa=, stove
=eternamente=, eternally, for ever
=etiqueta=, ticket, label
=evitar=, to avoid
=exacto=, exact, accurate
=examen=, examination
=exceder=, to exceed, to overstep
=exclusive=, exclusive, sole
=exhibir=, to show, to exhibit
=exigir=, to require
=exiguo=, slender, slight, small
=existencias=, stocks
=éxito=, result
=éxito (bueno, malo)=, success, failure
=expedidor=, sender
=experimentar=, to experience, to experiment
=experto=, experienced
=explicar, explanar=, to explain
=explotar=, to exploit, to work (mines, etc.)
=exponerse á=, to encounter, to expose oneself to
=exportación=, export, exportation
=exportador=, exporter, shipper
=extender=, to extend, to stretch
=extranjero=, foreigner, foreign, also abroad
=extraño=, strange, queer

=F=

=fábrica de algodón=, cotton mill
=fabricante=, manufacturer
=facilidad=, ease, facility
=factura=, invoice
=facturar=, to invoice
=falta=, want, absence of, fault, blame
=falta de aceptación, de pago=, non-acceptance, non-payment
=faltar=, to be wanting, to be necessary, to fail
=fama=, fame, reputation, name
=famoso=, famous
=fantasías=, fancies
=fardín, cuarto=, farthing, a trifling amount
=fardito=, truss
=fardo=, bale
=favorable=, favourable
=favorecer=, to oblige
=Febrero=, February
=fecha=, date
=fecha de=, dated
=feliz=, happy
=ferretería=, ironware
=ferrocarril=, railway
=festoneado=, scalloped
=fiador=, surety
=fiados=, book debts
=fidedigno=, trustworthy
=fiel=, faithful
=fielato=, octroi office
=fiesta del comercio=, bank holiday
=fijar=, to fix
=fijo=, fixed, firm
=filosofía=, philosophy
=firma=, signature
=firmar=, to sign
=firmeza=, firmness
=(el) fin=, the end
=fino=, shrewd
=fletar=, to charter, to freight
=flete=, freight
=flojedad=, slackness
=flojo=, slack
=flor=, flower
=floreciente=, flourishing
=folleto=, leaflet
=fomento=, development, encouragement
=fonda=, hotel, hotel
=fondo=, bottom, ground (colour)
=fondos=, funds, capital
=forma=, shape
=formal=, formal, respectable
=forro=, lining
=fortuna=, fortune
=forzar=, to force, to strain
=fósforos=, matches
=fracasar=, to fall through
=fracaso=, failure
=franco de averia particular=, f.p.a. (free particular average)
=franco de porte, tra(n)sporte pagado=, carriage paid
=franja=, fringe
=franqueo=, postage
=frase=, phrase, sentence
=frazada=, blanket
=frecuentemente=, frequently
=(la) frente=, forehead
=(el) frente=, front
=fresno=, ash
=frío= (adj. and n), cold
=fruta=, fruit
=fruto=, fruit of labour, etc.
=fuente=, fountain, source
=fuerte=, strong, fast, firm
=fuerza motriz=, motive power
=fugitivo= loose (colours)
=fulano=, so and so
=funcionar de, proceder (como)=, to act as
=fundar=, to found
=furioso=, furious
=fustán=, fustian

=G=

=galón=, gallon
=gana=, inclination, desire
=gana, de buena, mala=, willingly, unwillingly
=ganancias y pérdidas=, profit and loss
=ganar=, to gain, to earn
=ganga=, a bargain, cheap lot
=garabato=, clothes hook
=garantizar=, to guarantee, to warrant
=garbanzos=, Spanish peas
=garrote=, stick, cudgel
=gastar=, to spend, to spoil; also to wear (usually)
=gato=, cat, jack (machinery)
=general=, general
=géneros=, goods
=géneros alimenticios=, food-stuffs
=géneros imperfectos=, jobs
=generoso=, generous
=genio=, temper
=gente (la)=, people
=gerente=, manager
=girar=, to draw (a bill), to turn
=giro=, bill, draft, also turnover
=gobernar=, to govern
=gobierno=, government
=goleta=, schooner
=goma elástica, caucho=, rubber
=gorra (gorro)=, cap
=gorrión=, sparrow
=gozar=, to enjoy
=grabado=, embossed
=gracia=, grace, gracefulness
=graduación=, gradation, degree
=granadas=, pomegranates
=grande (gran)=, great, large
=grande velocidad (á)=, by fast train
=granizar=, to hail
=granjearse=, to win over
=granos, mercado de=, grain, grain market
=gratificación=, gratuity
=gratitud=, gratitude
=gratuito=, gratuitous, honorary
=grifo=, cock (machinery)
=gris=, grey
=grito=, cry, shout
=grueso=, thick
=gruñir=, to growl, to grumble, to grunt
=guante=, glove
=guardafuego=, fender
=guardapapeles=, file
=guardar=, to keep
=guardar cama=, to lie in bed
=guardias aduaneras=, custom house officials
=guarnición=, trimming
=guerra=, war
=guingas, carranclanes=, ginghams
=guisantes=, green peas
=gustar=, to please
=gustar (á uno)=, to like

=H=

=habas=, broad beans
=haber=, to have, there to be
=haber menester=, to need
=habérselas con uno=, to dispute, to wrangle, to vie with
=hábil=, clever
=habitantes=, inhabitants
=hablar=, to speak
=hacer=, to do, to make
=hacer caso=, to take notice
=hacer constar=, to show, to demonstrate
=hacer falta=, to be wanted
=hacer frente=, to face, to meet (bills, etc.)
=hacerse=, to become
=hacer una remesa=, to send a remittance
=hachuelas (hachas)=, hatchets (axes)
=hacienda=, property, shop, stores
=hallar, encontrar=, to find
=hambre=, hunger
=hampa=, vagabonds (company of)
=hasta que=, until
=hasta la fecha=, to date
=hasta que punto=, to what extent
=hato=, wearing apparel, bundle of clothes
=hay=, there is, there are
=haya=, beech
=heces de sebo=, tallow, greaves
=hecho=, fact, action
=helar=, to freeze
=(la= or =el) hélice=, the screw (of a boat)
=herida=, wound, sting
=herir=, to wound, to cut (fig.)
=hermano=, brother
=hermosamente=, beautifully
=hermoso=, beautiful, fine, handsome
=herramientas=, tools
=hervir=, to boil
=hidalguía=, nobleness, chivalry
=hielo=, escarcha, frost
=hierro=, iron
=higos=, figs
=higuera=, fig tree
=hija política, nuera=, daughter-in-law
=hijo=, son
=hijodalgo=, gentleman by birth, squire
=hijo político, yerno=, son-in-law
=hilador=, spinner
=hilados=, yarn
=hilar=, to spin
=hinchazón=, boom
=hipoteca, mortgage
=hipotecar=, to mortgage
=historia=, history
=holandas=, hollands
=holgazán=, lazy
=hombre=, man
=hombre llano=, rough-and-ready man
=honor=, honour
=honradez=, honesty
=honrar=, to honour
=hora=, hour
=hortelano= (fruit) gardener
=hortera=, office boy (jocularly)
=hoy=, to-day
=huelga=, strike
=huerta=, orchard
=hueso=, bone
=huir, escapar=, to flee, to escape
=humear=, to smoke (of a chimney)
=hundimiento=, subsidence

=I=

=el idioma=, the language
=igual=, equal
=igualar=, to equal, to match
=ilustrado=, enlightened
=ilustrar=, to illustrate
=ilustre=, illustrious
=impedir=, to hinder
=imperfectos=, job lots
=imponer=, to impose, also to inform
=importaciones=, imports
=importancia=, importance, amount
=importar=, to matter
=importar (en)=, to amount to
=importe=, amount
=imprimir (impreso)=, to print (printed)
=imprevidencia=, want of foresight
=imprevisto=, unforeseen
=impuesto=, tax
=impuesto de consumos=, octroi duties
=incertidumbre=, uncertainty
=incluir=, to enclose, to include
=inconveniencia=, unsuitability, impropriety
=inconveniente=, inconvenience
=indemnidad=, indemnity, signed guarantee
=indemnización=, indemnity (compensation for loss)
=indicar=, to indicate, to point out
=indígena=, native
=industria=, industry
=inercia=, idleness, inertia
=infeliz=, unhappy
=ínfimo=, infinitesimal
=infinidad=, an infinite number
=informe=, report
=informes=, information(s), references
=informar (de)=, to inform of, to acquaint with
=ingeniero=, engineer
=ingratitud=, ingratitude
=ingresos netos=, net revenue
=inmaturo, verde=, unripe
=inmediato=, immediate
=innavegable=, unnavigable
=innoble=, ignoble
=inquilino=, tenant
=inquietarse=, to feel uneasy
=integro=, integer, whole, upright
=inteligencia=, intelligence
=intención=, intention
=intentar=, to intend
=interés=, interest
=interesante=, interesting
=ínterin (en el)=, in the meantime
=interino=, interim
=interior=, interior, inland
=intervista=, interview
=interpretar=, to interpret
=invertir=, to invest (money)
=invierno=, winter
=ir=, to go, to lead to
=irrisorio=, laughable, absurd, ridiculously low (of prices)
=irse=, to go away
=isla=, island
=izquierda=, left

=J=

=jabalí=, boar
=jactarse=, to boast
=jamón=, ham
=jardín=, garden
=jardinero=, gardener
=jefe=, employer, chief
=jornalero=, day-labourer
=joven=, young, young man, young woman
=judías=, French beans
=Jueves=, Thursday
=jugoso=, juicy
=juicioso=, judicious, wise
=Julio=, July
=Junio=, June
=junta de acreedores=, meeting of creditors
=junto á=, near to, coupled with
=justificar=, to justify, to warrant
=justificarse=, to justify oneself
=justo=, right, just, fair
=jute, yute=, jute
=juventud=, youth, young age

=L=

=la labor=, labour
=laborioso=, laborious, hard-working
=labrado=, figured—brocaded
=lacre=, sealing-wax
=lado=, side
=ladrillos refractarios=, fire bricks
=ladrón=, thief
=lana=, wool
=langosta=, lobster
=lanillas para banderas=, bunting
=lápiz=, pencil
=lardo=, lard
=largo=, long
=largo de talle=, abundant, full
=largura=, length
=lástima=, pity
=latón=, brass
=lección=, lesson
=la leche=, milk
=lectura=, reading
=leer=, to read
=legajo=, bundle (of papers)
=legislatura=, (parliamentary) session
=lejos=, far away
=lengua=, tongue, language
=lento=, slow, remiss
=letra=, bill of exchange, handwriting
=levita=, frock-coat
=la ley=, the law
=libra=, pound sterling, pound weight
=librarse=, to get rid of
=libre=, free
=libro=, book
=libro de facturas=, invoice book
=libro mayor=, ledger
=liebre=, hare
=lienzos=, linens
=lienzos adamascados=, diapers
=lienzos morenos=, brown (unbleached) linens
=ligero=, slight, light
=limitación=, curtailment, limitation
=limitar=, to limit
=límite=, limit
=limones=, lemons
=limpiar=, to clean
=limpio=, clean
=lingotes de hierro=, pig-iron
=lino=, flax
=linón, olán=, lawn
=liquidar=, to liquidate, to settle, to clear off (goods)
=líquido, neto=, nett
=liso=, plain, smooth
=lisonjearse=, to flatter oneself
=lista, boletín=, price list
=listados=, striped (goods)
=el local=, the building, the premises
=loco=, mad
=locomotora=, locomotive
=lograr=, to contrive, to attain
=logro=, attainment
=el lote, la partida=, lot
=loza=, crockery
=luchar=, to fight, to struggle against
=luego=, at once, then
=luego que=, as soon as
=en lugar de=, instead of
=Lunes=, Monday
=luto=, mourning

=LL=

=llamar=, to call
=llamarse (me llamo)=, to be called (my name is)
=llantas=, tyres
=llegar=, to arrive
=llegar á ser=, to become, to contrive to be
=lleno=, full
=llevar=, to carry, to wear, to take
=llevar á cabo=, to carry into effect
=llevar chasco=, to be disappointed, to be baffled
=llevarse bien=, to get on well
=llover=, to rain
=lloviznar=, to drizzle
=lluvia=, rain

=M=

=maceta, portaramillete (portarramillete), florero=, flower-stand
=machacar=, to hammer, to insist
=madera=, timber, wood
=madre=, mother
=maestro=, teacher, master
=maíz=, maize
=mal=, badly
=mala, correo=, post
=malbaratar=, to undersell
=malcontento=, uneasiness, discontent
=maleta=, portmanteau
=malgastar=, to waste, to squander
=malo=, bad, wicked, also ill
=malversar=, to embezzle
=mampostería=, masonry
=mancha=, spot, stain
=mandar=, to order, to send
=mandar buscar=, to send for
=mandato=, order (injunction)
=manga=, sleeve (also hose, pump)
=de manga ancha=, not over-scrupulous
=mango=, handle
=manifestar=, to manifest, to inform, to say (in a letter)
=mano=, hand, quire
=mano de obra=, labour
=manta=, blanket
=manteca= (S. America, =mantequilla=), butter
=manteca de puerco=, lard
=mantener=, to maintain, to hold up
=mantenerse=, to maintain oneself, to be maintained
=manzana=, apple
=mañana=, to-morrow, the morning
=máquina á =vapor, steam engine
=maquinaria=, machinery
=mar alborotada=, heavy sea
=maravillar=, to surprise
=maravillarse=, to wonder
=marca=, mark, brand
=marcharse=, to go away
=margarina=, margarine
=marido=, husband
=mariscos=, shell fish
=mármol=, marble
=martes=, Tuesday
=martillos=, hammers
=Marzo=, March
=mas=, but
=más=, more
=más adelante=, later on
=material rodante=, rolling-stock
=(el) matiz=, shade of colour
=matute=, smuggling
=Mayo=, May
=mayor=, larger
=mayormente=, especially
=(la) mayor parte=, most
=mecanismo=, mechanism, contrivance (machinery of the law, etc.)
=mecer=, to stir (a liquid), to rock (acradle, etc.)
=mediana=, average
=mediar=, to intervene
=medias=, hose, stockings
=médico=, doctor, physician
=medida=, measure
=mediería=, hosiery
=medio=, half, means
=medrar=, to prosper
=mejor=, better
=mejora, mejoría=, improvement, looking up (market)
=mejorar=, to improve
=melindroso=, squeamish, very particular
=melocotones=, peaches
=mención (hacer)=, to mention
=mencionar=, to mention
=menester=, necessary, needful
=menor=, smaller
=mensual=, monthly
=(la) mente=, the mind
=mercado=, market
=mercancía=, merchandise, goods
=merced á=, thanks to
=mercería=, haberdashery
=merma=, leakage
=mes=, month
=mesa=, table
=método=, method
=metro=, metre
=miedo=, fear
=miembro=, member
=mientras=, while
=mientras tanto=, meanwhile
=miércoles=, Wednesday
=mil=, thousand
=milla=, mile
=millón=, million
=mina de carbón=, coal-mine, colliery
=minero=, miner
=mínimo=, minimum
=ministro-erio=, minister, ministry
=mirar=, to look
=mismo=, same, self
=la mitad=, the half
=modista=, milliner
=modo=, way, manner
=moer=, mohair
=moler=, to grind
=montaje=, mounting (machinery)
=monte, montaña=, mount, mountain
=moratoria, moratorium=, time extension for payment
=moreno=, brown, natural colour
=moroso, lento=, remiss, slow (in payments)
=mortal=, mortal
=mostrar=, to show
=motín=, riot
=mover=, to move
=mozalbete=, beardless youth
=muchacho=, boy, lad
=mucho=, much, exceedingly, greatly
=muebles de bejuco=, rattan furniture
=muestra=, sample
=muestrarios=, pattern cards, sets
=mujer=, woman, wife
=multa=, a fine, penalty
=mundial=, world (adj.)
=mundo=, world
=todo el mundo=, everybody
=muselina=, muslin
=museo=, museum
=muy=, very

=N=

=nación=, nation
=nada=, nothing
=nanquín, mahón=, nankeen
=nansú=, nainsook
=naranjas=, oranges
=nariz=, nose
=naufragar (se)=, to wreck (to be shipwrecked)
=navaja de afeitar=, razor
=Navidad=, Christmas
=navío, barco, buque=, ship, boat
=necesario=, necessary
=necesitar=, to want, to need
=negar=, to deny
=negarse=, to refuse
=negativa=, refusal
=negociado=, division (gov. office)
=negociante=, merchant
=negocio(s)=, business
=negro=, black
=neto, líquido=, nett
=neumático=, pneumatic
=nevar=, to snow
=nieve=, snow
=ninguno=, no one, any (after neg.)
=niño=, child
=niquelado=, nickel-plated
=nivel=, level
=no bien=, as soon as
=noche=, evening, night
=nombrar=, to appoint
=nombre=, name
=no obstante=, notwithstanding
=norte=, north
=no sea que=, lest
=notas de banco=, bank notes
=noticia(s)=, news
=Noviembre=, November
=novísimo=, brand new
=nuera, hija política=, daughter-in-law
=nuevo=, new
=numero=, number
=nunca=, ever, never

=O=

=objeto=, object
=obligación=, bond, debenture, obligation.
=obligar=, to compel
=obligarse=, to bind oneself
=obrar=, to operate, to work, to act
=obrero=, workman
=obsequio=, favour
=observar=, to observe, to remark, to notice
=obstruir=, to obstruct
=obtener, conseguir=, to get, to obtain, to succeed in.
=ocasión=, occasion
=océano=, ocean
=Octubre=, October
=ocurrir=, to occur, to happen
=oeste=, west
=oficina, escritorio, despacho=, office
=ofrecer=, to offer
=ofrecimiento=, offer
=oir=, to hear
¡=ojo=! attention, look out
=el ojo=, the eye
=olanes, linones=, lawns
=ollería=, hollow-ware
=olvidar (se)=, to forget
=ómnibus=, omnibus
=operaciones=, dealings, operations
=operadores=, dealers (on 'Change), operators
=oponerse=, to oppose
=oportunidad=, opportunity, chance
=óptimo=, very good, excellent
=orden=, order
=ordinario=, ordinary
=organizar=, to organize
=orilla=, bank (river), selvedge
=oro=, gold
=otoño=, autumn
=otro=, other
=ovillo (de algodón)=, ball (of cotton)

=P=

=padre=, father
=padres=, parents
=pagadero=, payable
=pagar=, to pay
=pagaré=, promissory note, note of hand
=página=, page
=paila, tacho=, pan (sugar manuf.)
=país=, country (nation)
=pájaro=, bird
=palabra=, word
=palacio=, palace
=palas=, shovels, spades
=palmera=, date-palm
=palo de mesana=, mizzen mast
=palo mayor=, main mast
=pan=, bread, loaf
=pana=, velveteen
=pana acordonada=, cords, corduroy
=paño=, cloth, suiting
=pañol, carbonera=, bunker
=pantalones=, trousers
=pañuelo=, handkerchief
=papel=, paper
=papel secante=, blotting-paper
=paquete=, packet, parcel
=par=, pair, couple
=á la par=, at the same time
=para, por=, for
=para con=, towards
=para que=, so that
=parecer=, to appear, to seem
=el parte=, the report
=la parte=, the part
=partida=, lot, parcel (of goods)
=partir=, to depart, to set out
=pasar=, to pass, to hand
=pasar por=, visitar, to call at
=pasársele por alto á uno=, to escape one's notice.
=pasas (de Corinto)=, raisins, currants
=Pascua=, Easter
=paseo=, promenade, walk, stroll
=el pasivo, pasividades=, liabilities
=paso=, step
=dar pasos=, to take steps
=patines=, skates
=patria=, country, fatherland
=patronos=, masters (of workmen)
=pausa=, pause
=paz=, peace
=pedido=, order
=pedir=, to ask, to demand
=peligro=, danger
=peligroso, arriesgado=, dangerous
=pelo=, hair
=penique=, penny
=pensar (se)=, to think
=Pentecostés=, Whitsuntide
=(á) pequeña velocidad=, (by) slow train
=pequeñeces=, trifles
=pequeño=, small, little (adj.)
=pera=, pear
=percal=, calico
=perder=, to lose
=pérdida=, loss
=perenne=, perennial
=perfeccionar=, to perfect
=perfectamente=, perfectly
=perfecto=, perfect
=periódico=, newspaper
=perito=, expert
=perjuicios=, damages
=pero=, but
=perro=, dog
=perspectivas=, prospects
=perturbar=, to disturb
=pesado=, heavy
=peso=, weight
=pésimo=, very bad
=petición=, request, petition
=picos=, picks
=(al) pie=, (at) foot
=piel=, skin
=pierna=, leg
=piezas de repuesto=, spare pieces (machinery)
=pimienta=, pepper
=pino=, pine
=pintura=, paint
=pipa=, cask, pipe
=pistola=, pistol
=placer=, to please, pleasure
=plan=, plan (idea)
=planchas de hierro=, sheet iron
=plano=, plan (sketch)
=planta=, plant
=plata=, silver
=plaza=, market-place, square, place (town)
=plazo=, term
=plegar=, to fold
=plomo=, lead (slate-colour)
=pluma=, pen
=población=, villa, town
=pobre=, poor
=poco=, little (adv. and subs.)
=poder=, to be able
=poder= (n.), power, power of attorney
=(no) poder menos de=, not to be able to help …
=poderoso=, powerful
=podrido=, rotten
=póliza de seguro=, insurance policy
=poner=, to put, to place
=poner al corriente=, to inform
=poner en conocimiento=, to inform, to acquaint with
=poner en condiciones=, to enable
=poner pleito=, to bring an action
=por, para=, for
=porcelana=, china
=por decirlo así=, so to say, as it were
=por de contado=, of course
=porfiar=, to insist
=por más que=, however much, although
=(al) por mayor, por menor=, wholesale, retail
=pormenores=, particulars, details
=porta estampillas=, stamp-rack
=portabandera=, standard-bearer
=portanto=, therefore
=portaramillete (portarramillete) maceta=, flower-stand
=porte pagadero al destine, tra(n)sporte seguido=, carriage forward
=portes, franqueo=, postage
=pórtico=, porch
=poseer=, to possess, to be worth
=posición=, position, standing
=postergar=, to delay, to put off
=práctico=, practical
=preceder=, to precede
=precio=, price
=precioso=, precious
=preferible=, preferable
=preliminar=, preliminary
=premio=, reward, prize, premium
=prescindir de=, to dispense with
=presentar=, to present, to lay before, to produce, to introduce one person to another
=prestar=, to lend, to render (help)
=presupuesto=, estimate
=prevalecer, reinar=, to prevail, to rule
=prever=, to foresee, to anticipate
=previsión=, foresight
=prima=, premium
=primavera=, spring
=primer dependiente=, chief clerk
=primo-a=, cousin
=principal=, principal, chief, leading
=principiar=, to commence
=principio=, beginning
=prisa=, speed, haste, hurry
=probar=, to try, to prove, to attempt
=proceso=, process, case, lawsuit
=producir=, to produce
=producto=, product, produce, output
=productos accesorios=, bye-products
=productos químicos=, chemicals
=profesor=, professor
=prohibir=, to prohibit
=pronto=, quick, speedy, soon
=propietario=, landlord, owner
=propio=, own
=proponer=, to propose
=proponerse=, to intend, to purpose
=proporcionado, adecuado=, adequate
=proveer= (p.p.), =provisto (proveído)=, to provide
=provisorio=, interim
=próximamente=, about, approximately (also shortly)
=próximo=, next
=proyecto=, scheme, plan, project
=proyecto de ley=, parliamentary bill
=prudente=, prudent
=pruebas=, proofs, trials, evidence
=publicar=, to publish
=pueblo=, people, town, village
=puerco=, pig
=puerta=, door
=puerto=, port, harbour
=pues=, then, well…
=puntitas=, pen-nibs
=(al) punto=, (on) the spot
=puntos=, points, dots, spots (in prints)
=pupitre=, desk
=puros, tabacos, cigarros=, cigars

=Q=

=que=, that, who, which
=¿que?= what?
=quebrantamiento=, breakdown
=quebranto=, mishap, misfortune, loss
=quedar(se)=, to remain
=quehaceres=, business, occupations
=queja=, complaint
=quejarse=, to complain
=querer=, to want, to wish to have
=querer decir=, to mean
=querido=, beloved, dear
=queso=, cheese
=quiebra=, bankruptcy
=quien=, who, whom
=quienquiera (que)=, whoever
=quincalla=, smallware
=quinta=, villa
=quitar=, to take away

=R=

=radiograma=, wireless
=ramo=, branch, line (of business)
=rastrillos=, harrows
=rayas=, stripes
=rayos=, spokes, rays
=razón=, reason
=a razón de=, at the rate of
=tener razón=, to be right
=reanudar=, to resume
=rebaja, reducción=, abatement, reduction, rebate
=reborde=, rim, flange
=rechazar=, to reject, to discard
=recibir=, to receive
=recibo=, receipt, reception
=reclamación, reclamo=, claim
=reclamar=, to claim
=reclamo=, advertisement
=recobrar=, to recover
=recoger=, to gather, to collect, to take up
=recomendar=, to recommend
=reconocer, admitir=, to acknowledge
=reconvenir=, to scold
=recto=, straightforward, straight
=recursos=, means, resources
=redactar=, to draw up (deeds)
=redondo=, round
=reducción, rebaja=, reduction, abatement, rebate
=reducir=, to reduce
=referir=, to refer
=reflejo=, reflection
=reforma arancelaria=, tariff reform
=refrán=, proverb
=refrendar=, to countersign
=refresco=, refreshment
=refundir=, to refund
=regadío=, irrigation
=regalar=, to present
=régimen=, rule, regime
=regir=, to rule
=regla=, rule, ruler
=en regla=, in order
=reglamentos=, regulations, bye-laws
=regresar=, to come back
=rehusar, negarse á=, to refuse
=reina=, queen
=reinar=, to reign, to rule, to prevail
=reino=, kingdom
=reir=, to laugh
=reírse=, to laugh at, to mock
=rejas=, ploughs
=relación=, report
=relampaguear=, to lighten
=reloj=, watch, clock
=remesa=, remittance, also shipment
=remitir=, to remit, to send
=remolacha=, beetroot
=remolcar, traer a remolque=, to tow, to take in tow
=remover=, to remove, to stir, to poke (the fire)
=renglón=, line
=reo=, culprit
=reparar=, to notice
=repasar=, to go over, to look over
=repentino=, sudden
=repetir=, to repeat
=reprensible=, objectionable
=representación exclusiva=, sole agency
=representante=, representative, agent
=representar=, to represent, to act for
=requerir=, to require
=repulgado, dobladillado=, hemmed
=reservar=, to reserve
=residir=, to reside
=resortes=, springs
=con respecto á, respecto de=, with respect to
=respetar=, to respect
=respeto=, respect
=respire=, breath, breathing-time
=responder=, to answer
=responsible=, responsible (liable for)
=resto, restante=, remainder
=restos=, remnants
=resultado=, result
=resumir=, to recapitulate, to state briefly
=retardar=, to delay, to be delayed
=(los) reunidos=, those present
=reunión=, meeting
=al revés=, on the wrong side
=revista=, review
=revocar, contramandar=, to revoke, to countermand
=rey=, king
=rezumar=, to leak
=ricamente=, richly
=rico=, rich
=riesgo=, risk
=río=, river
=riqueza=, wealth
=rizados, crespolinas=, crimps
=rizo (del ala)=, curl (of the brim of a hat)
=robar=, to rob, to steal
=roble, encina=, oak
=rodajas de goma=, rubber heels (revolving)
=rogar=, to ask, to beg, to require
=rollo=, roll
=romperse= (p. p., =roto=), to break
=rosa=, rose, pink
=rotura=, breakage
=ruin=, base, sordid
=rumbo=, course (of a ship)
=rumor, especie=, rumour

=S=

=sábado=, Saturday
=sábana=, sheet (bed)
=(á) saber, es decir, viz=.
=saber=, to know (through the mind), to know by heart
=sabio=, wise
=sacar=, to draw out, to get or pull out, to derive, to get back (one's money)
=saldo=, settlement, clearing line
=salir=, to come out, to go out (up)
=salir en=, to come up to (amount)
=salubre=, healthy
=salvamento=, salvage
¡=salve=! hail!
=santo=, holy, saint
=sardinas=, sardines
=sargento=, sergeant
=sastre=, tailor
=satines brochados=, brocaded satins
=satisfecho=, satisfied
=sea que=, whether
=sebo (heces de)=, tallow (greaves)
=secretario=, secretary
=sed=, thirst
=seda=, silk
=según=, according to
=seguir=, to continue, to follow
=seguro=, sure, insurance
=sellar=, to seal
=sello=, seal, postage-stamp
=semana=, week
=semejante=, similar
=semestre=, half-year
=Senado=, Senate
=señal=, sign, mark
=sencillo=, plain, simple
=señor=, gentleman
=señora=, lady
=sentir=, to feel, to be sorry
=ser=, to be
=(la) serie=, series
=ser menester=, to be necessary
=servicio=, service
=servir=, to serve
=Setiembre=, September
=si=, if
=sí=, oneself
=sí=, yes
=silla=, chair
=siempre= always
=sierra mecánica=, sawing machine
=(un) si es no es=, just a little bit, ever so little
=siguiente=, following
=simpático=, pleasant, winsome, taking
=simple=, single, simple, plain
=sin, sin que=, without
=sinceridad=, sincerity
=sincere=, sincere
=síndico=, trustee
=sin embargo=, notwithstanding however
=sin mirar a gastos=, regardless of expense
=sin novedad=, safely, all well, safe and sound
=(un) sinnúmero=, a large number, innumerable
=sin precedente=, unprecedented
=(los) síntomas=, symptoms
=sitio=, spot, place
=sobre=, on, upon
=sobre= (n.), envelope
=sobrecargarse=, to overload oneself
=sobre cubierta=, on deck
=sobrestadía=, demurrage
=sobrios=, quiet (colours)
=socarrón=, sly, cunning
=sociedad=, society
=sociedad anónima= or =por acciones=, limited company
=socio=, partner
=soda, sosa=, soda
=sofá=, sofa, couch
=soga=, rope
=sol=, sun
=solamente, sólo=, only (adv.)
=soldado=, soldier
=soler=, to be wont, to be accustomed to
=solicitar=, to solicit
=solidez=, solidity
=solo=, only (adj.)
=sombrero=, hat
=sombrero de copa=, silk hat
=someter=, to submit
=sonrisa=, smile
=soplar=, to blow
=soportar=, to put up with
=soportes=, bearings
=sorprendente=, surprising
=sorpresa=, surprise
=sosa, soda=, soda
=sospechar=, to suspect
=su=, his, her, its, their, your
=suave=, soft, mellow, gentle
=(en) subasta=, (by) auction
=subir=, to go, to come, up
=subsanar=, to correct
=suceder=, to happen, to succeed
=sucursal=, branch house
=sueldo=, salary, wages
=suelo=, ground (soil)
=sueño=, sleep
=suerte=, fortune, luck
=sufrimiento=, suffering
=sufrir=, to suffer
=sujetapapeles=, paper fasteners
=suma=, sum, addition
=sumar=, to add
=suma redonda=, lump sum
=superficie=, surface
=suponer=, to suppose
=suprimir=, to suppress
=sur, sud=, south
=surtido=, assortment, selection
=suspender los pagos=, to stop payments
=(en) suspense=, (in) abeyance

=T=

=tabacos, cigarros, puros=, cigars
=tablilla=, board
=tablón=, plank
=tacharse=, to blame or censure oneself
=tacho, paila, pan= (sugar manuf.)
=tacones=, heels
=tacos=, cues (billiard)
=tacto=, feel, touch, tact
=tal=, such
=tal cual=, as it is
=talvez=, perhaps
=taller=, workshop
=también=, also, too, as well
=tambor=, drum (machinery, etc.)
=tampoco=, neither, either (after neg.)
=tan …. como=, so, as …. as
=tapete=, carpet, rug
=tarde=, afternoon, evening, late
=tardo=, slow
=tarea=, task
=tarjeta=, card
=tasajo=, jerked beef
=té=, tea
=tejedor=, weaver
=tejer=, to weave
=tejido elástico=, webbing
=tejidos=, textiles, cloths
=tela=, cloth
=telar=, loom
=telas para trajes (de señora)=, dress goods
=telas para pantalones=, trouserings
=telefonear=, to telephone
=tema= (m.), the exercise
=tema= (f.), the fear
=temporada, estación=, season
=temporal=, tormenta, storm
=temporalmente=, temporarily
=temprano=, early
=tenazas=, tongs
=tendero=, shopkeeper
=tenedores=, forks, holders
=tener=, to have, to hold
=tener cuenta=, to pay (to be advantageous)
=tener en cuenta=, to take into consideration, to bear in mind
=tercio=, third
=terciopelo=, velvet
=terliz=, ticking
=terreno=, land, estate
=tesoro=, treasure
=textil=, textile
=(la) tez=, complexion
=tienda=, shop
=tierno=, tender
=tijeras=, scissors
=timbre=, stamp
=tinta=, ink
=tintero=, inkstand
=tío,-a=, uncle, aunt
=tiro, largura=, length
=títulos=, bonds
=tocino=, bacon
=todavía=, yet, still
=todo,-a,-os,-as=, all, every
=tomar=, to take
=tomar a mal=, to take amiss
=tomar la delantera=, to take the start on
=tomar vuelo=, to develop, to increase
=tonelada=, ton
=tonto=, simpleton, foolish
=torcer=, to twist
=tormenta=, temporal, storm
=tornillos=, screws
=torno=, lathe
=trabajador=, hard-working
=trabajar=, to work
=trabajar, ir, á porfía=, to vie with
=trabajo=, work
=traer=, to bring, to carry
=traer á remolque (remolcar)=, to tow, to take in tow
=trámites (de la ley)=, routine of the law, legal means
=tranquilo=, quiet, calm
=transportar=, to transport, to convey
=tra(n)sporte pagado (franco de porte)=, carriage paid
=tra(n)sporte seguido, porte pagadero al destino=, carriage forward
=trapiche=, sugar mill
=trasmitir=, to convey
=traspapelado=, mislaid (of a paper)
=traspaso=, goodwill (of a business)
=Tratado de arbitraje=, Arbitration Treaty
=tratar=, to conduct (business), to treat, to try, to endeavour
=travesía=, journey by sea (crossing)
=tren=, train
=trencilla=, braid
=tribunal=, court
=trigo=, wheat
=trilladores=, threshing (machines)
=trinquete=, foremast
=tripas de buey=, ox-casings
=tripulación=, crew
=triste=, sad
=trocar=, to exchange
=tronar=, to thunder
=tropezar=, to stumble
=tubo=, pipe
=tuercas=, nuts (mach.)
=turba=, crowd (motley)

=U=

=ufano=, proud
=últimamente=, lately
=únicamente=, solely, only
=útil=, useful
=utilidad=, utility, usefulness, service, profit
=uvas=, grapes

=V=

=vacío=, empty
¡=vale=! farewell!
=valer=, to be worth
=valer la pena=, to be worth while
=valer más=, to be preferable
=valiente=, brave
=valor=, value, worth, courage
=valores=, securities
=válvula=, valve
=vapor=, steamer
=vara=, Spanish yard
=varar=, to ground (ships)
=variedad=, variety
=varios=, several
=vecino=, neighbour, inhabitant, ratepayer
=veintena=, score
=vejez=, old age
=vela=, candle, sail
=velero=, sailing vessel
=vencer=, to win, to fall due
=vender=, to sell
=venir=, to come
=venir á menos=, to come down in the world, to decline
=venta=, sale
=ventaja=, advantage
=ventana=, window
=ver=, to see
=verano=, summer
=verdad=, truth
=verde=, green
=vergüenza=, shame
=verificarse=, to take place
=vez, veces=, time, times
=en vez de=, instead of
=vía=, way, route, via
=viajador=, traveller, navigator
=viajante=, traveller (commercial)
=viajar=, to travel
=viaje de ida=, outward journey (trip)
=viaje de vuelta=, homeward journey (trip)
=viajero=, traveller, tourist, etc.
=vida=, life, living
=vidriado=, glass ware
=viejo=, old
=viento=, wind
=Viernes=, Friday
=viga=, beam
=vigilar=, to watch over
=villa, población=, town
=viñas=, vineyards
=vinícola=, wine (adj.)
=vino=, wine
=violeta=, violet
=virtualmente=, practically
=virtud=, virtue
=visitar=, to visit, to call upon, to wait upon
=vista=, sight, view
=á la vista=, at sight
=visto que=, seeing that
=viudo=, widower
=vivamente=, vividly, earnestly
=vivir=, to live, to reside
=vivo=, alive, lively, vivid, bright (colour)
=vocablo, palabra=, word
=vocabulario=, vocabulary
=volante=, fly-wheel
=volar=, to fly
=volcar=, to capsize
=voluntad=, will, goodwill
=volver=, to turn, to go, to come back
=volverse=, to become
=á la vuelta=, carried forward
=de la vuelta=, brought forward

=Y=

=ya=, already, now, yet, etc.
=yacer=, to lie
=yerno, hijo político=, son-in-law
=y pico (20 y pico, etc.)=, odd (20 odd, etc.)
=yute, jute=, jute

=Z=

=zanjar=, to compromise
=zapatos=, shoes
=zarazas=, cotton prints
=zinc=, zinc
=zorra=, fox

II. ENGLISH-SPANISH.

=A=

=to abandon=, abandonar, desinteresarse
=abatement=, rebaja, reducción
=(in) abeyance=, (en) suspenso
=to be able=, poder
=to abolish=, abolir
=about=, próximamente, aproximadamente
=abroad=, al extranjero
=absence of=, falta de
=absolutely=, absolutamente
=absurd=, irrisorio
=abundant=, cuantioso, largo de talle
=abuse=, abuso
=to accede=, acceder
=accident=, accidente
=to accomplish=, cumplir
=according to=, según, conforme á
=to accost=, abordar
=account sales=, cuenta de venta
=accurate=, exacto
=to accuse=, acusar
=to be accustomed=, soler
=to ache=, doler
=acute, artful=, corrido
=to acknowledge=, reconocer, admitir
=to acknowledge receipt=, acusar recibo
=to acquaint with=, informar, poner en conocimiento
=acquaintance=, conocimiento, conocido
=to acquire=, adquirir
=to act=, obrar
=to act as=, funcionar de, proceder como
=to act for=, representar
=action=, acción
=active=, activo
=acts=, actas
=to add=, añadir
=to add=, sumar
=addition=, suma
=address=, dirección
=to address oneself (to)=, dirigirse (á)
=adequate=, adecuado, proporcionado
=to adhere=, adherir
=to adjust=, ajustar
=adjustment=, ajuste
=to admit=, admitir, acoger
=advance=, anticipo
=advantage=, ventaja
=to take advantage=, aprovecharse
=to be advantageous=, tener cuenta
=adverse=, contrario
=to advertise=, anunciar
=advertisement=, anuncio, reclamo
=advice=, aviso, consejo
=to advise=, avisar
=adzes=, azuelas
=affair=, asunto
=after=, después
=afternoon=, tarde
=against=, contra, en contra de
=agency (sole)=, agencia, representación exclusiva
=to agglomerate=, aglomerar
=to agree=, convenir, acordar
=agreeable=, agradable
=agreement=, contrato, convenio, arreglo
=agricultural=, agrícola
=aim=, blanco
=air pumps=, bombas de aire
=alert=, alerta
=alive=, vivo
=to allege=, alegar
=to allude to, to hint=, aludir a
=to make an allowance=, bonificar
=already=, ya
=also=, también
=to alter=, cambiar
=although=, aunque, por más que
=altogether, quite=, de todo punto
=always=, siempre
=ambassador=, embajador
=amount=, importe, cantidad
=to amount to=, importar en
=ample=, amplio, cuantioso
=to anchor=, anclar
=ancient=, antiguo
=angry=, enfadado
=annoyed=, disgustado
=to answer=, contestar, responder
=anterior=, anterior
=to anticipate=, prever
=anticipation=, anticipatión
=anxious to=, ansioso de
=to be anxious to=, tener empeño
=anyone=, alguno
=anything=, algo
=apartment=, cuarto
=to appeal=, apelar
=to appear=, aparecer, parecer
=apple=, manzana
=to appoint=, nombrar
=to appreciate=, apreciar
=appreciation=, estima
=to approach=, aproximarse, abordar
=approximately=, próximamente
=April=, Abril
=arbiter=, árbitro
=Arbitration Treaty=, Tratado de Arbitraje
=architect=, arquitecto
=archive=, archive
=arduous=, arduo
=to argue=, argüir
=arm=, brazo
=army=, ejército
=to arrange=, arreglar, disponer
=arrangement=, arreglo
=to arrive=, llegar
=ash=, fresno
=as it is=, tal cual
=as it were=, por decirlo así
=to ask=, pedir, rogar
=assets and liabilities=, active y pasivo
=to assist=, asistir
=as soon as=, no bien, luego que
=as soon as possible=, á la mayor brevedad
=assortment=, surtido
=as well=, también
=at best=, á mejor andar
=at foot=, al pie
=at least=, al menos
=at length=, detenidamente
=at once=, en seguida, luego
=at sight=, á la vista
=to attain=, lograr
=attainment=, logro
=to attempt=, probar
=to attend=, asistir, atender á
=attention=, atención
=attention=! ¡ojo! ¡atención!
=at the rate of=, á razón de
=attitude=, actitud
=to attract=, atraer
=to attribute=, atribuir
=attribution=, atribución
=(by) auction=, (en) subasta
=August=, Agosto
=autumn=, otoño
=to avail oneself of=, aprovecharse de
=available=, disponible
=average=, mediano, término medio, avería
=free of particular average=, franco de avería particular
=averse to=, ajeno á
=to avoid=, evitar
=award=, dictamen
=axe=, hacha
=axle-shaft=, árbol de eje

=B=

=back=, espalda
=bacon=, tocino
=bad=, malo
=very bad=, pésimo
=badly=, mal
=to be baffled=, llevar chasco
=bagging=, arpillera
=baize=, bayeta
=to bake=, cocer
=ball=, bola
=ball (of cotton)=, ovillo (de algodón)
=bank=, banco
=bank holiday=, fiesta del comercio
=bank notes=, billetes, notas de banco
=bank (river)=, orilla
=bankruptcy=, quiebra
=bargain (cheap purchase)=, ganga
=barley=, cebada
=barrister=, abogado
=base=, sordid, ruin
=basis=, base
=to bathe=, bañar
=batiste=, batista
=to be=, estar, estarse, ser
=beam=, viga
=beard=, barba, barbas
=beardless youth=, mozalbete
=bearings=, soportes, cojinetes
=to bear in mind=, tener en cuenta
=bearish, bear= (exch.), bajista
=beautiful=, hermoso
=beauty=, belleza
=to become=, hacerse, volverse, llegar á ser
=bed, bedstead=, cama, armazón de cama
=beech=, haya
=beef (jerked)=, carne (seca)
=beer=, cerveza
=beetroot=, remolacha
=before (time)=, antes (de)
=before (place)=, ante, delante de
=to beg=, rogar
=beginning=, principio
=behaviour=, conducta
=behind=, detrás
=to believe=, creer
=beloved=, querido
=below=, abajo
=belt=, cinturón
=belting (machinery)=, correas
=bench=, banco
=beneficent=, benéfico
=benefit=, beneficio
=besides=, amén de
=to betray=, atraicionar
=better=, mejor
=between, amongst=, entre
=between decks=, entrepuentes
=bicycle=, bicicleta
=bill=, giro
=billiards=, billar
=bill market=, los cambios
=bill of exchange=, letra
=bill of lading=, conocimiento
=to bind (books)=, encuadernar
=to bind oneself=, obligarse
=birch=, abedul
=black=, negro
=blacking=, betún
=blame=, culpa
=to blame oneself=, tacharse
=blanket=, manta, frazada
=blast furnace=, altos hornos
=blind=, ciego
=blotting paper=, papel secante
=to blow=, soplar
=blue=, azul
=boar=, jabalí
=board=, tablilla
=to board=, abordar
=boat=, buque, navío, barco
=bobbin=, bobina
=body=, cuerpo
=to boil=, hervir, bullir
=boiler=, caldera
=bold, daring=, atrevido
=bond=, obligación, título
=bonded warehouses=, almacenes fiscales
=bone=, hueso
=to book (orders)=, asentar
=book=, libro
=book debts=, fiados
=book-shelf=, estante
=boom=, hinchazón
=boot=, bota
=boots=, botines
=both=, ambos
=bourse=, bolsa
=box=, caja
=boy=, muchacho
=braid=, trencilla
=branch=, ramo
=branch house=, sucursal
=brand=, marca
=brand new=, novísimo
=bread=, pan
=breakdown=, quebrantamiento, daño
=to break out=, estallar
=breath=, respiro
=breathing-time=, respiro
=breeze=, brisa
=brevity=, brevedad
=brief=, corto
=brig=, bergantín
=to bring=, traer
=to bring an action=, poner pleito
=to bring upon oneself=, buscarse
=brisk=, activo, animado
=broad beans=, habas
=brocade=, brocado, tela labrada
=broker=, corredor
=broom=, escoba
=brother=, hermano
=brother-in-law=, cuñado
=brought forward=, de la vuelta
=brown=, moreno
=brush=, cepillo
=bucket=, cubo, caldero
=building=, edificio, local
=bullish, bull (exch.)=, alcista
=bundle (of papers)=, legajo (de papeles)
=bunker=, carbonera, pañol
=bunting=, lanillas para banderas
=to burst=, estallar
=business=, negocio, negocios
=business (occupations)=, quehaceres
=but=, pero, mas
=butter=, manteca, mantequilla (S. America)
=button=, botón
=bye-law=, reglamento
=bye-products=, productos accesorios

=C=

=cabbages=, berzas, coles
=cable=, cable
=cablegram=, cablegrama
=to calculate=, calcular
=to calculate on=, contar con
=calculation=, cálculo
=calico=, percal
=to call=, llamar
=to be called=, llamarse
=to call at=, hacer escala (ships), pasar por, visitar
=to call together=, convocar
=to be called=, llamarse
=calm=, tranquilo
=to cancel=, anular
=candidly=, con el corazón en la mano
=candle=, vela
=cane=, caña
=canned=, en latas
=cap=, gorra, gorro
=caprice, whim=, antojo
=to capsize=, volcar
=captain=, capitán
=to capture=, coger
=card=, tarjeta
=care=, cuidado
=to take care=, cuidar
=carefully=, cuidadosamente
=cargo=, cargamento
=carnation=, clavel
=carpet=, alfombra, tapete
=carriage forward=, tra(n)sporte seguido, porte pagadero al destino
=carriage paid=, tra(n)sporte pagado, franco de porte
=carried forward=, á la vuelta
=to carry=, llevar, traer
=to carry into effect=, llevar á cabo
=cart=, carro
=case=, caja
=case, lawsuit=, proceso
=in case=, en caso que
=cash=, dinero efectivo
=for cash=, al contado
=in cash=, en efectivo, en metálico
=cashier=, cajero
=cask=, barrica, pipa
=to cast=, echar
=castillian=, castellano
=cat=, gato
=catalogue=, catálogo
=to catch=, coger
=cauldron (small)=, caldero
=cautious=, cauteloso, cauto
=to cede=, ceder
=to be celebrated=, celebrarse
=celebrated=, célebre
=cellar=, bodega
=to censure, to blame, oneself=, tacharse
=certain=, cierto
=to certify=, certificar
=chair=, silla
=change=, cambio
=to change=, cambiar
=charcoal=, carbón vegetal
=to charge=, cobrar
=to take charge=, encargarse
=to charter=, fletar
=cheap=, barato
=cheapening=, abarata miento
=cheese=, queso
=chemicals=, productos químicos
=chemist=, boticario
=cheque=, cheque
=to cherish (the hope)=, abrigar
=chief=, principal
=child=, niño
=chimney=, chimenea
=chin=, barba, barbilla
=chivalry=, hidalguía
=chocolate=, chocolate
=to choose=, escoger, elegir
=Christmas=, Navidad
=cigars=, cigarros, puros, tabacos
=cinnamon=, canela
=to circulate=, circular
=to cite=, citar
=city=, ciudad
=claim=, reclame, reclamación
=to claim=, reclamar
=clean=, limpio
=to clean=, limpiar
=clear=, claro
=to clear=, despejar
=clearing-house=, banco de liquidación
=clearing-line=, saldo
=clearly=, claramente, claro
=clerk (chief)=, dependiente (primer)
=clever=, hábil
=client=, cliente
=climate=, el clima
=climatic=, climatológico
=climax=, colmo
=clock=, reloj
=cloth=, tela, tejido, paño
=cloves=, clavos
=coal=, carbón de piedra
=coal-mine=, mina de carbón
=coarse=, basto
=coast=, costa
=coat=, americana, casaca
=cock (machinery)=, grifo
=coffee=, café
=cold=, frío
=to collect (money)=, recoger, cobrar
=collection=, colección
=colliery=, mina de carbón
=colonial produce=, coloniales
=colour (fast, loose)=, color (sólido, firme, falso, fugitivo)
=colourings=, coloridos
=column=, columna
=to come=, venir
=to come back=, regresar, volver
=to come down=, bajar
=to come down in the world=, venir á menos
=to come out=, salir
=to come up to (an amount)=, salir en
=to commence=, comenzar, empezar, principiar, estrenarse
=commerce=, comercio
=commercial=, comercial
=commission agent=, comisionista
=to commit oneself=, comprometerse
=common=, común, basto
=company (limited)=, compañia anónima, por acciones
=to compel=, obligar
=to compensate=, compensar
=competitor=, competidor, contrincante
=to complain=, quejarse
=complete=, completo
=complexion=, la tez
=to compromise=, zanjar, comprometer
=to conceive=, concebir
=to concern=, concerner
=concern=, empresa
=concisely=, concisamente
=to conclude (a bargain)=, concluir, cerrar (un trato)
=conduct=, conducta
=to conduct (business)=, tratar
=to confess=, confesar
=confidence=, confianza
=connecting rod=, biela
=connection=, conexión
=connection=, clientéle, clientela
=to consider=, considerar
=considerate, thoughtful=, comedido
=to consign=, consignar
=consignee=, consignatario
=consignment=, consignación
=consumer=, consumidor
=contain, to be able to=, or =to be able to be contained=, caber
=content, contentment=, contento
=contents=, contenido
=continually=, continuamente
=to continue=, continuar, seguir
=contraband=, contrabando
=contract=, contrato
=contractor=, destajista
=contrary=, contrario
=to contribute=, contribuir
=contrivance=, mecanísmo, medio
=to contrive to be=, llegar á ser
=to contrive=, lograr
=control=, dominio
=convenient=, conveniente
=to convey=, tra(n)sportar, transmitir
=to convince=, convencer
=to cook=, cocer
=copper=, cobre
=copy book=, copiador
=corded=, acordonado
=cords, corduroy=, pana acordonada
=corporal=, cabo
=to correct=, subsanar, corregir
=correspondence=, correspondencia
=correspondent=, corresponsal
=cost, insurance and freight (C.I.F.)=, costo, flete y seguro (C.F.S.)
=cotton (spot)=, algodón disponible
=cotton market=, mercado algodonero
=cotton mill=, fábrica de algodón
=cotton prints=, zarazas
=to counsel=, aconsejar
=to count=, contar
=to countermand=, contramandar, revocar
=to countersign=, refrendar
=country=, país, patria, campo
=couple=, par
=coupled with=, junto á
=couplings=, conexiones
=courage, valor=, aliento, ánimo
=course (of ship)=, rumbo
=of course=, por de contado
=court=, tribunal
=courteously=, cortésmente
=cousin=, primo
=to cover=, cubrir
=covered=, cubierto
=to covet=, codiciar
=cram full=, abarrotado
=crank-shaft=, árbol de cigüeñal
=cream=, crema
=credit=, crédito
=to credit=, abonar, acreditar
=creditors' meeting=, junta de acreedores
=crew=, tripulación
=crimps=, crespolinas, rizados
=crockery=, loza
=crop=, cosecha
=to cross=, atravesar, cruzar
=crowd (motley)=, turba
=cry=, grito
=cubic=, cúbico
=cudgel=, garrote
=cue (billiards)=, taco
=culprit=, reo
=cupboard=, armario
=curl (of hat brim)=, rizo (del ala)
=currant=, pasas de Corinto
=current=, actual, corriente
=curtailment=, limitación
=custom=, costumbre
=customer=, cliente
=custom house official=, guardia aduanera
=custom house tariff=, arancel
=customs=, derechos
=to cut=, cortar
=to cut (fig.)=, herir
=cutting=, corte
=cylinder=, cilindro

=D=

=damage=, avería, daño, perjuicio
=to damage=, dañar
=damask=, damasco
=danger=, peligro
=dangerous=, arriesgado peligroso
=daring, bold=, atrevido
=date=, fecha
=date palm=, palmera
=to date, up to date=, hasta la fecha
=dated=, fecha de
=dates=, dátiles
=daughter-in-law=, nuera, hija política
=to dawn=, alborear, amanecer
=day=, día
=lay day=, día de estadía
=days of demurrage=, días de contraestadía
=day before yesterday=, anteayer
=day book=, diario
=to dazzle=, deslumbrar
=dealers=, operadores
=fair dealing=, equidad
=deal=, especulación
=to deal=, tratar
=dealings=, operaciones
=dear=, caro, querido
=debenture=, obligación
=to debit=, adeudar, cargar, debitar
=debt=, deuda
=decadence=, decadencia
=deceased=, difunto
=December=, Diciembre
=to decide=, decidir, decidirse
=decidedly=, decididamente
=decision=, decisión, dictamen
=below deck=, bajo cubierta
=on deck=, sobre cubierta
=to declaim=, declamar
=to declare=, declarar
=decline=, baja
=to decline=, venir á menos
=to decree=, decretar
=deeds=, hechos
=deeds (law)=, actas
=defect=, defecto
=to defer=, diferir
=to define=, definir
=definite=, definitivo
=degree=, grado, graduación
=delay=, demora
=to delay=, demorar, postergar
=delegate=, delegado
=to commit a delinquency=, delinquir
=to deliver=, entregar
=delivery=, entrega
=to demand=, pedir, demandar
=demurrage=, sobrestadía
=to deny=, negar
=to depend on=, depender de
=to deplore=, deplorar
=depôt=, depósito
=to depress=, deprimir
=to derive=, sacar
=design=, dibujo, diseño
=desire=, gana, deseo
=to desire=, apetecer, desear
=desk=, pupitre, banco
=writing desk=, escritorio
=despicable=, despreciable
=detailed=, detallado
=details=, detalles, pormenores, particulares
=deterioration=, empeoramiento
=to develop=, desarrollar, tomar vuelo
=development=, desarrollo, fomento
=to devote oneself=, dedicarse
=devotion=, devoción
=diapers=, lienzos adamascados
=dictionary=, diccionario
=different=, diferente, distinto
=difficult=, difícil, arduo
=difficulty=, dificultad
=diligence=, diligencia
=to direct=, dirigir
=disappointed (to be)=, llevar chasco
=disarmament=, desarme
=to discard=, rechazar
=to discharge=, descargar
=to disconcert=, desanimar
=to feel discouraged=, desanimarse
=discreet=, discreto
=to discuss=, discutir
=disgusted=, disgustado
=dishonour=, deshonra
=to dispense with=, prescindir de
=displeased=, disgustado
=to dispose=, disponer
=to distinguish=, distinguir
=district=, distrito
=disturbance=, disturbio
=disturbed=, perturbado, disturbado
=division (Govt. office)=, negociado
=to do=, hacer
=dock=, dique
=doctor=, médico
=doctrine=, doctrina
=document=, documento
=dog=, perro
=door=, puerta
=dot=, punto
=doubt=, duda
=down quilt=, colcha de plumón
=dozen=, docena
=draft=, giro
=to drain=, agotar
=draughtsman=, diseñador
=to draw a bill=, girar
=to draw near=, aproximarse
=to draw out=, sacar
=to draw up (deeds)=, redactar
=dress goods=, telas para trajes
=drill=, dril
=to drizzle=, lloviznar
=drum (machinery)=, tambor
=to duplicate=, duplicar
=during=, durante

=E=

=each=, cada
=eager=, ansioso, deseoso
=eagle=, águila
=early=, temprano
=to earn=, ganar
=to be earnest=, tener empeño
=earnestly=, vivamente
=ease=, facilidad
=east=, este
=Easter=, Pascua
=to eat=, comer
=to economise=, ahorrar, economizar
=to effect=, efectuar
=effort=, esfuerzo
=with great effort=, á duras penas
=either= (after negative), tampoco
=to elaborate=, elaborar
=elegantly=, elegantemente
=to embark=, embarcar
=embarrassment=, embarazo apuro
=to embezzle=, malversar
=embossed=, grabado
=to embrace=, abrazar, abarcar
=embroidered=, bordado
=to employ=, emplear
=to be employed=, emplearse
=employer=, jefe
=empty=, vacío
=to enable=, poner en condiciones
=to enclose=, incluir, adjuntar
=enclosed=, adjunto
=to encounter=, exponerse á, arrostrar
=encouragement=, fomento, estímulo
=end=, cabo, fin
=to endeavour, to treat, to try=, tratar
=to endorse=, endosar
=to engage=, empeñar
=engagement=, empeño
=engine=, máquina
=engineer=, ingeniero
=to enhance=, elevar
=to enjoy=, gozar, disfrutar de
=to enjoy oneself=, divertirse
=to enlarge=, agrandar
=enlightened=, ilustrado
=to enlist=, alistar
=to be enough=, bastar
=to entangle=, embrollar
=to enter=, entrar en
=enterprise=, empresa
=enterprising=, emprendedor
=to entrust=, confiar á
=envy=, envidia
=epoch=, época
=equal=, igual
=to equal=, igualar
=equipment=, equipo
=equity=, equidad
=error=, error
=to escape=, escapar
=to escape one's notice=, pasársele por alto á uno
=especially=, mayormente
=to establish=, establecer
=to esteem=, estimar
=eternally=, eternamente
=this evening=, esta tarde
=ever=, nunca
=for ever=, eternamente
=every=, cada
=everybody=, todo el mundo, todos
=exact=, exacto
=examination=, examen
=to exceed=, exceder
=exceedingly=, mucho
=excellent, very good=, óptimo
=to exchange=, trocar, cambiar
=exclusive=, exclusivo
=to excuse=, dispensar, disculpar
=to execute=, ejecutar
=exercise (gram.)=, tema (el)
=to exert oneself=, afanarse
=to exhaust=, apurar, agotar
=to exhibit=, exhibir
=to expect=, esperar
=to experience=, experimentar
=experienced=, experto
=to experiment=, experimentar
=expert=, perito
=to explain=, explicar, explanar
=to exploit=, explotar
=export=, exportación
=exporter=, exportador
=to expose oneself to=, exponerse á, arrostrar
=to extend=, extender
=extension of time for payment=, moratorium, moratoria
=extinguished=, apagado
=eye=, ojo

=F=

=face=, cara
=to face=, hacer frente
=to facilitate=, allanar
=facility=, facilidad
=fact=, hecho
=to fade=, desteñir
=to fail=, faltar
=failure=, éxito malo
=failure=, fracaso
=fair=, equitativo, justo
=fairness=, equidad
=faithful=, fiel
=to fall=, caer
=fall= (n.), caída, baja
=to fall due=, vencer
=to fall through=, fracasar
=fame=, fama
=famous=, famoso
=fancies=, fantasías
=far away=, lejos
=farewell=! ¡vale!
=farthing=, fardín
=by fast train=, á grande velocidad
=father=, padre
=fatherland=, patria
=fault=, falta
=at fault=, culpado
=favour=, obsequio
=favourable=, favorable
=fear=, miedo, tema (f.)
=February=, Febrero
=feel=, tacto
=to feel=, sentir
=fender=, guardafuego
=few=, pocos, (-as)
=field=, campo
=fig-tree=, higuera
=to fight=, batirse, luchar, pelear
=figured=, labrado
=figures=, cifras
=file=, ensartapapeles, guardapapeles
=to file (papers), to string (beads)=, ensartar
=to file a petition in bankruptcy=, declararse en quiebra
=to finance=, comanditar
=to find=, encontrar, hallar
=fine=, hermoso
=fine= (n.), multa
=finish=, acabado, apresto, aderezo
=to finish=, acabar
=fir=, abeto
=fire-arms=, armas de fuego
=firebricks=, ladrillos refractarios
=firm, fast, strong=, fuerte
=firm=, casa
=firm= (adj.), firme, fijo
=firmness=, firmeza
=to fix=, fijar
=fixed=, fijo
=to flatter oneself=, lisonjearse
=flange=, reborde
=flax=, lino
=flourishing=, floreciente
=flower=, flor
=flower-stand=, portaramillete (portarramillete), maceta, florero
=to fly=, volar
=fly-wheel=, volante
=to fold=, plegar
=to follow=, seguir
=fond of=, aficionado á
=food-stuffs=, géneros alimenticios
=foolish=, tonto
=at foot=, al pie
=footwear=, calzado
=for=, para, por
=to force=, forzar
=forehead=, la frente
=foreign=, extranjero
=foreign to=, ajeno á
=foreigner=, extranjero
=foreman=, capataz
=foremast=, trinquete
=fork=, tenedor
=form=, boletín, forma
=formal=, formal
=formerly=, antes
=fortunately=, afortunadamente
=fortune=, fortuna, suerte
=to forward=, encaminar
=to found=, fundar
=foundry=, altos hornos
=fountain=, fuente
=fox=, zorra
=frame,-ing (mach.)=, armadura
=free=, libre
=free of particular average (F.P.A.)=, franco de avería particular
=to freeze=, helar
=freight=, flete
=to freight=, fletar
=French beans=, judías
=frequently=, frecuentemente
=Friday=, viernes
=friend=, amigo
=friendly=, amistoso
=friendship=, amistad
=to frighten=, amedrentar
=to be frightened=, espantarse
=frilled=, alechugado
=fringe=, franja
=frock coat=, levita
=front=, el frente
=frost=, hielo, escarcha
=frost-bitten=, tornado por la escarcha
=fruit=, fruta
=fruit= (of labour), fruto
=full=, lleno
=in full=, entero (por)
=funds=, fondos
=furious=, enfurecído, furioso
=furniture=, muebles
=blast furnace=, altos hornos
=fustian=, fustán

=G=

=to gain=, ganar
=gallon=, galón
=garden=, jardín
=gardener=, jardinero, hortelano
=to gather=, recoger
=gaudy= (colour), chillón
=gearing=, engranaje
=general=, general
=generous=, generoso
=gentle=, blando, suave
=gentleman=, señor
=gentleman by birth=, hidalgo (hijodalgo)
=to get=, conseguir, obtener
=to get back= (money), sacar
=to get on well=, llevarse bien
=to get out=, sacar
=to get to know=, enterarse
=ginghams=, guingas, carranclanes
=to give=, dar
=to give back=, devolver
=to give on lease=, alquilar
=to give thanks=, dar las gracias
=to gladden=, alegrar
=glassware=, vidriado
=glove=, guante
=glutted=, abarrotado
=to go=, ir, andar
=to go away=, marcharse, alejarse
=God=, Dios
=to go down=, bajar
=gold=, oro
=goloshes=, chanclos
=good=, bueno, el bien
=goods=, géneros
=goods, merchandise=, mercancía
=goodwill=, voluntad
=goodwill= (of a business), traspaso
=to go out=, salir
=to go out (fire)=, apagarse
=to go over=, repasar
=to go round=, circular
=gossip=, charla
=to govern=, gobernar
=government=, gobierno
=grace, gracefulness=, gracia
=gradation=, gradación
=grain=, grano
=grain market=, mercado de granos
=to grant=, conceder
=grape=, uva
=gratis=, de balde
=gratitude=, gratitud
=gratuitous=, gratuito
=gratuity=, gratificación
=great=, gran, grande
=great grandfather=, bisabuelo
=greatly=, mucho
=greed=, codicia
=green=, verde
=green peas=, guisantes
=grey=, gris
=to grind=, moler
=ground=, suclo
=group=, grupo, agrupación
=to grow dark=, anochecer
=to guarantee=, garantir, garantizar

=H=

=to hail=, granizar
=hail=! ¡salve!
=hair=, cabello=, pelo
=half=, medio=, la mitad
=ham=, jamón
=to hammer=, machacar
=hammers=, martillos
=hand=, mano
=to hand=, pasar, entregar
=handkerchief=, pañuelo
=handle=, mango
=to hang=, colgar
=to happen=, ocurrir, suceder, acertar á
=harbour=, puerto
=hard=, duro
=hare=, liebre
=harrows=, rastrillos
=harvest, harvest time=, cosecha
=haste=, prisa
=to hasten=, apresurar (se)
=hat=, sombrero
=hatchets=, hachuelas
=to have=, tener, haber
=to have just=, acabar de
=head=, cabeza
=headache=, dolor de cabeza
=health (indifferent)=, delicado de salud
=healthy=, salubre
=to heap up=, amontar
=to hear=, oir
=heat=, calor
=heaven=, cielo
=heavy=, pesado
=heavy sea=, mar alborotada
=hedged in=, aislado
=heels=, tacones
=to help=, asistir, ayudar
=help (not to be able to)=, no poder menos de
=hemmed=, dobladillado, repulgado
=hemp, Manilla hemp=, cáñamo, abacá
=hemstitched=, con dobladilla de ojo
=her=, su
=here=, aquí, acá
=herewith=, adjunto
=hides=, cueros
=to hinder=, impedir
=to hint, to allude=, aludir á
=to hire=, alquilar
=his=, su
=history=, historia
=to hit it=, dar en el clavo
=hitch=, contratiempo
=hoist=, ascensor
=hold (ship)=, bodega
=to hold=, tener
=to hold up=, mantener
=holder=, tenedor
=hollow-ware=, ollería
=holy, saint=, santo
=honesty=, honradez
=honorary=, honorario, gratuito
=honour=, honor
=to honour=, honrar
=hook (clothes)=, garabato
=horse=, caballo
=hose=, manga
=hose (half)=, medias, calcetines
=hosiery=, mediería
=hotel=, fonda, hotel
=hour=, hora
=house, firm=, casa
=house (branch)=, sucursal
=hub=, buje
=hundred=, cien, ciento
=hurry=, prisa
=to hurt=, doler
=husband=, marido, esposo

=I=

=if=, si
=idleness, inertia=, inercia
=ignoble=, innoble
=ill=, enfermo, malo
=to illustrate=, ilustrar
=illustrious=, ilustre
=immediate=, inmediato
=imperfection=, defecto
=importance=, importancia
=imports=, importaciones
=to impose=, imponer
=impropriety=, inconveniencia
=to improve=, mejorar
=improvement=, mejora, mejoría
=in case=, en caso que
=inclination=, gana
=to include=, incluir, abarcar
=inconvenience=, inconveniente
=to increase=, aumentar, tomar vuelo
=indemnity=, indemnización
=to indicate=, indicar
=industry=, industria
=inferior=, inferior, basto
=an infinite number=, una infinidad
=infinitesimal=, ínfimo
=to inform=, imponer, informar
=information=, informes
=to infringe=, atropellar por
=in full=, por entero
=infuriated=, enfurecido
=ingratitude=, ingratitud
=inhabitants=, habitantes, vecinos
=injunction=, mandato
=injury=, daño
=ink=, tinta
=inkstand=, tintero
=in order=, en regla, de conformidad
=in proportion as=, á medida que
=inside=, dentro de
=to insist=, insistir, porfiar, machacar
=by instalments=, á plazos
=instant (month)=, actual, corriente
=instead of=, en lugar de, en vez de
=instruction=, disposición, instrucción
=insurance=, seguro
=insurance policy=, póliza de seguro
=to insure=, asegurar
=intelligence=, inteligencia
=to intend=, proponerse, intentar
=intention=, intención
=interest=, interés
=interesting=, interesante
=interim=, provisorio, interino
=interior=, interior
=to interpret=, interpretar
=to intervene=, intervenir, mediar
=interview=, intervista
=in the long run=, á la larga
=to introduce (one to another)=, presentar
=in truth=, á la verdad
=in vain=, en balde
=to invest=, invertir (dinero)
=to investigate=, averiguar, apurar
=to invoice=, facturar
=invoice=, factura
=invoice book=, libro de facturas
=irrigation=, regardío
=iron=, hierro
=iron-clad=, acorazado
=iron, pig=, lingotes de hierro
=ironware=, ferretería
=island=, isla
=isolated=, aislado
=to issue=, emitir, publicar
=its=, su

=J=

=Jack (machinery)=, gato
=jacket=, americana, chaqueta, casaca
=jaconets=, chaconadas
=January=, Enero
=jeans=, coquillos
=jerked beef=, carne seca, tasajo
=jobs=, géneros imperfectos
=journey (by sea)=, travesía
=homeward journey=, viaje de vuelta
=outward journey=, viaje de ida
=judicious=, juicioso
=juicy=, jugoso
=July=, Julio
=June=, Junio
=just=, justo, cabal
=just a little bit=, un si es no es
=jute=, jute, yute
=to justify=, justificar

=K=

=keen=, agudo
=kind=, bondadoso
=kindness=, amabilidad
=king=, rey
=kingdom=, reino
=knife=, cuchillo
=to know (a person, thing)=, conocer
=to know (by heart)=, saber
=knowledge=, conocimiento, doctrina

=L=

=label=, etiqueta, rótulo
=labour=, labor, mano de obra
=laborious=, laborioso
=lace=, encaje
=to lack=, carecer, faltar
=lad=, muchacho
=lady=, señora
=land=, terreno
=landlord=, propietario
=language=, el idioma, la lengua
=lard=, lardo, manteca de puerco
=large=, grande
=large number=, (un) sinnúmero
=larger=, mayor
=to last=, durar
=late (deceased)=, difunto
=late=, tarde
=lately=, últimamente
=later=, más adelante
=lathe=, torno
=to laugh, to laugh at=, reirse
=law=, ley
=lawns=, linones, olanes, batistas
=lawsuit=, proceso
=lawyer=, abogado
=to lay before one=, presentar
=lay days=, días de estadía
=lazy=, holgazán
=lead=, plomo
=to lead=, conducir
=to leak=, abrir agua, rezumar
=leakage=, merma
=to learn=, aprender
=to leave=, dejar
=ledger=, libro mayor
=left=, izquierda
=leg=, pierna
=legal means=, trámites de la ley
=lemon=, limón
=to lend=, prestar
=lesson=, lección
=lest=, no sea que, de miedo que
=to let=, dejar
=letter=, carta, escrito
=level=, nivel
=to level=, allanar
=liabilities=, pasivo, pasividades
=liable for=, responsable
=library=, biblioteca
=to lie in bed=, guardar cama
=life=, vida
=lifeless=, desanimado
=lift=, ascensor
=light (colour)=, claro
=to lighten=, relampaguear
=to like=, gustar á uno
=limit=, límite
=to limit=, limitar
=limitation=, limitación
=limited company=, sociedad anónima, por acciones
=line=, línea
=line (of business)=, ramo
=linen damask=, alemanisco
=linens=, lienzos
=linens (unbleached)=, lienzos morenos
=lining=, forro
=to liquidate=, liquidar
=to listen=, escuchar
=little=, poco (adv.), pequeño (adj.)
=to live=, vivir
=lively=, vivo
=living=, vida
=to load=, cargar
=loaf=, pan
=loan=, empréstito
=lobster=, langosta
=lock=, cerradura
=to lock=, cerrar con llave
=lock-out=, cierre
=locomotive=, locomotora
=long=, largo
=to look=, mirar
=to look for=, buscar, apetecer
=looking up (market)=, haber mejora en
=look out=! ¡ojo!, atención!
=to look over=, repasar
=loom=, telar
=loose colours=, colores fugitives
=to lose=, perder
=loss=, pérdida quebranto
=lot=, partida
=cheap lot=, ganga
=job lot=, imperfectos
=to love=, amar
=love=, amor
=luck=, suerte
=lucky=, dichoso, afortunado
=lump sum=, suma redonda

=M=

=machine=, máquina
=machinery=, maquinaria
=mad=, loco
=maidservant=, criada
=to maintain (oneself)=, mantener (se)
=maize=, maíz
=to make=, hacer
=to make a mistake=, equivocarse
=to make a slip of the tongue=, correrse
=to make a start=, principiar, estrenarse
=main mast=, palo mayor
=to make fun of=, burlarse
=to make good=, compensar
=to make one's appearance=, aparecer
=to make over=, ceder
=to make up=, confeccionar
=to make up one's mind=, decidir (se)
=man=, hombre
=manager=, gerente, administrador
=to manifest=, manifestar
=manner=, manera, modo
=manservant=, criado
=manufacturer=, fabricante
=marble=, mármol
=March=, Marzo
=margarine=, margarina
=mark=, marca, señal
=market=, mercado
=market-place=, plaza
=to marry=, casar (se) con
=masonry=, mampostería
=master=, amo, maestro
=master spinner=, contramaestre de filatura
=to match=, igualar
=matches=, fósforos
=matter=, asunto
=to matter=, importar
=May=, mayo
=mayor=, alcalde
=means=, medio
=in the meantime=, en el ínterin
=meanwhile=, mientras tanto
=measure=, medida
=meat=, carne
=mechanism=, mecanísmo
=to meet=, encontrar
=to meet (bills)=, hacer frente
=to meet requirements=, corresponder á las necesidades
=meeting=, reunión, junta, mitín
=megaphone=, bocina
=mellow=, suave
=member=, miembro
=to mention=, citar, mencionar, hacer mención
=merchandise, goods=, mercancía
=merchant=, comerciante, negociante
=method=, método
=metre=, metro
=mild=, apacible
=mile=, milla
=milk=, la leche
=milliner=, modista
=million=, millón
=mind=, la mente
=miner=, minero
=minimum=, mínimo
=minister=, ministro
=ministry=, ministerio
=mint of money=, dineral
=miser, miserly=, avaro, avariento
=misfortune=, desgracia, quebranto
=mishap=, quebranto, contratiempo
=mislaid (of a paper)=, traspapelado
=mistake=, equivocación, error
=mizzen mast=, palo de mesana
=to mock=, reírse
=mohair=, moer
=Monday=, lunes
=money=, dinero
=money market=, mercado bursátil
=month=, mes
=monthly=, mensual
=moratorium=, moratoria
=more=, más
=morning=, mañana
=morocco leather=, cordobán
=mortgage=, hipoteca
=to mortgage=, hipotecar
=mother=, madre
=motive power=, fuerza motriz
=motor-car=, automóvil
=motor-boat=, barca á motor, automóvil
=mountain=, monte, montaña
=mounting (machinery)=, montaje
=mourning=, luto
=mouth=, boca
=to move=, mover
=much=, mucho
=muffler=, bufanda
=municipality=, concejo, cabildo, ayuntamiento, corporación
=museum=, museo
=muslin=, muselina
=must=, deber
=muster=, agrupación

=N=

=nail=, clavo
=nainsook=, nansú
=name=, nombre, fama
=nankeen=, nanquín
=nation=, nación, país
=native=, indígena
=near= (adj.), cercano
=near to=, junto a, cerca de
=necessary=, necesario
=to be necessary=, ser menester
=to need=, haber menester, precisar
=needle=, aguja
=neighbour=, competitor, contrincante, vecino, prójimo
=neither=, tampoco
=net=, neto, líquido
=net revenue=, ingresos netos
=new=, nuevo
=news=, noticias
=newspaper=, periódico
=next=, próximo
=nickel-plated=, niquelado
=night, evening=, noche
=nobleness=, hidalguía nobleza
=non-acceptance=, falta de aceptación
=no one=, ninguno
=north=, norte
=nose=, nariz
=note=, esquela, nota
=note of hand=, pagaré
=nothing=, nada
=for nothing=, de balde
=notice=, aviso
=notice (of dismissal)=, aviso de despedida
=to notice=, advertir, reparar
=notwithstanding=, no obstante, sin embargo
=November=, Noviembre
=now=, ahora
=number=, número
=nuts (mach.)=, tuercas

=O=

=oak=, roble, encina
=oats=, avena
=object=, objeto
=objection=, dificultad
=objectionable=, reprensible
=obligation=, empeño, obligación
=to oblige=, complacer, agradar, contentar
=to observe=, observar
=to obstruct=, obstruir
=to obtain=, conseguir, obtener
=occasion=, ocasión
=occupations=, quehaceres
=to occur=, ocurrir
=ocean=, océano
=October=, Octubre
=Octroi duties=, impuesto de consumos
=octroi office=, fielato
=odd (20 odd)=, y pico (veinte y pico)
=of course=, por de contado
=offer=, ofrecimiento, oferta
=to offer=, ofrecer
=office=, oficina, despacho
=office (lawyer's)=, bufete (de abogado)
=office boy (jocularly)=, hortera
=of no avail=, de balde
=often=, á menudo
=oil=, aceite
=old=, viejo, antiguo
=old age=, vejez
=omnibus=, ómnibus
=on=, sobre
=on deck=, sobre cubierta
=onion=, cebolla
=only= (adj.), solo
=only= (adv.), sólo, solamente
=to open=, abrir
=opening=, apertura
=openly=, á las claras, claro y redondo
=to operate=, obrar
=operations=, operaciones
=operator=, operador
=opportunity=, oportunidad
=to oppose=, oponerse á
=orange=, naranja
=orchard=, huerta, huerto
=to order=, mandar, pedir
=order=, orden, pedido, encargo
=ordinary=, ordinario
=to organise=, organizar
=osnaburgs=, cregüelas
=other=, otro
=other people's property=, (lo) ajeno
=output=, producto
=overdue=, atrasado
=overhead=, aereo
=to overload oneself=, sobrecargarse
=to overstep=, exceder
=to owe=, deber
=owing to=, debido á
=own=, propio
=ox=, buey
=ox casings=, tripas, de buey

=P=

=to pack=, empacar
=packages=, bultos
=packet=, paquete
=page=, página
=pain=, dolor
=to pain=, doler
=painful=, doloroso
=paint=, pintura
=pair=, par
=palace=, palacio
=pan (sugar manuf.)=, tacho, paila
=paper=, papel
=paper fasteners=, sujetapapeles
=parcel=, paquete, partida
=parents=, padres
=parliamentary bill=, proyecto de ley
=parliamentary session=, legislatura
=part=, la parte
=partner=, socio
=pasha=, bajá
=to pass=, pasar
=pattern sets or cards=, muestrarios
=to pawn=, empeñar
=pause=, pausa
=to pay=, pagar
=to pay (to be advantageous)=, tener cuenta
=payable=, pagadero
=peace=, paz
=peaches=, melocotones
=pen=, pluma
=penalty=, multa
=pencil=, lápiz
=penknife=, cortapluma
=pen-nibs=, puntitas
=penny=, penique
=people=, gente, pueblo
=pepper=, pimienta
=perennial=, perenne
=perfect=, perfecto
=to perfect=, perfeccionar
=perfectly=, perfectamente
=perhaps=, talvez
=petition=, petición
=phrase=, frase
=philosophy=, filosofía
=physician=, médico
=pickled beef=, carne en salmuera
=picks=, picos
=pig=, puerco
=pig-iron=, lingotes de hierro
=pigeon-holes=, casillero
=pin=, alfiler
=pine=, pino
=pink (col.)=, rosa
=pipe=, tubo, pipa
=pistol=, pistola
=to place=, colocar, poner
=place=, plaza, sitio
=plain=, sencillo, simple
=plan (idea)=, plan, proyecto
=plan (sketch)=, piano
=plane=, cepillo
=plank=, tablón
=plant=, planta
=plate (metal)=, chapa
=plausible=, atendible
=pleasant, winsome, taking=, simpático
=to please=, gustar, placer
=pleasure=, placer
=pledge=, empeñar
=plough=, arado
=pneumatic=, neumático
=pocket-book=, cartera
=point=, punto
=to point out=, indicar
=to poke (fire)=, remover
=poker=, atizador
=politely=, cortésmente
=pomegranates=, granadas
=poor=, pobre
=porch=, pórtico
=port=, puerto
=portfolio=, cartera
=portmanteau=, maleta
=position=, posición
=possess=, poseer
=post=, correo, mala
=to post=, echar al correo
=postage=, franqueo, portes
=postman=, cartero
=to postpone=, aplazar, diferir
=pound=, libra
=power of attorney=, poder
=powerful=, poderoso
=practical=, práctico
=practically=, virtualmente
=to precede=, preceder
=precious=, precioso
=preferable=, preferible
=preference shares=, acciones preferentes
=to prejudice=, comprometer
=preliminary=, preliminar
=premium=, premio, prima
=present=, actual, presente
=to present=, presentar, regalar
=those present=, los reunidos
=preserves=, conservas alimenticias
=to press=, apremiar
=pretty=, bonito
=to prevail=, prevalecer, reinar
=previous=, anterior
=price=, precio
=price list=, boletín, lista
=principal=, principal
=to print, printed=, imprimir, impreso
=cotton prints=, zarazas, estampados
=prize=, premio
=to produce=, presentar, producir
=product=, producto
=professor=, profesor
=profit and loss=, ganancias y pérdidas
=pro forma account=, cuenta simulada
=to prohibit=, prohibir
=project=, proyecto
=promenade=, paseo
=promissory note=, pagaré
=property=, hacienda, propiedad
=to propose=, proponer
=proof=, ensayo, prueba
=prospects=, perspectivas
=to prosper=, medrar
=proud=, ufano
=to prove=, probar
=proverb=, refrán
=to provide=, proveer
=provided that=, con tal que
=prudent=, prudente
=to punish, to chastise=, castigar
=pupil=, discípulo
=to purchase=, comprar
=to purify, to exhaust, to investigate=, apurar
=to purpose=, proponerse
=to put=, poner
=to put off=, postergar
=to put out=, desconcertar
=to put out of gear=, descomponer
=to put up=, llevar
=to put up with=, soportar

=Q=

=quality=, calidad
=quantity=, cantidad
=quarter=, cuarto
=queen=, reina
=queer=, extraño
=question=, cuestión, asunto
=in question=, consabido
=to question=, dudar, preguntar
=quick=, pronto
=quiet=, tranquilo, sobrio, apagado (colour)
=quilting=, acolchado
=quire=, mano
=quite candidly=, con el corazón en la mano
=quota=, cuota
=quotation=, cotización, (cita)
=to quote=, citar, cotizar

=R=

=to rack one's brains=, devanarse los sesos
=rails=, carriles, rieles, railes
=railway=, ferrocarril
=rain=, lluvia
=to rain=, llover
=raisins=, pasas
=ratepayer=, contribuyente, vecino
=rattan furniture=, muebles de bejuco
=rays=, rayos
=razor=, navaja de afeitar
=to read=, leer
=reading=, lectura
=ready=, pronto, listo
=ready money=, dinero efectivo
=reason=, razón
=reasonable=, razonable, arreglado
=rebate=, rebaja, reducción
=to make a rebate=, bonificar
=to recapitulate=, resumir
=receipt=, recibo
=to receive=, acoger, recibir
=reception=, recibo
=to recommend=, recomendar, abonar
=record=, colmo
=to record=, consignar
=to have recourse=, acudir á
=to recover=, recobrar
=red=, encarnado, rojo
=to reduce=, reducir
=reduction=, rebaja, reducción
=to refer=, referir
=references=, informes
=to reflect=, reflexionar
=reflection=, reflejo
=refreshment=, refresco
=to refund=, refundir
=refusal=, negativa
=to refuse=, rehusar, negarse á
=regardless of expense=, sin mirar á gastos
=region=, comarca
=to register (letters, etc.)=, certificar
=registered office (of a firm)=, domicilio
=regulations=, reglamentos
=to reign=, reinar
=to reject=, rechazar
=to rejoice=, alegrarse
=to relate=, contar, dar cuenta
=relating to=, acerca de
=to remain=, quedar
=remainder=, resto, restante
=to remark=, observar
=remiss=, lento, moroso
=to remit, to send=, remitir
=remittance=, remesa
=remnants=, restos
=to remove=, remover, quitar
=to render help=, prestar ayuda
=to rent=, alquilar
=to repeat=, repetir
=to repent=, arrepentirse
=to reply=, contestar, responder
=report=, informe, parte, relación
=to report=, dar cuenta
=to represent=, representar
=representative=, representante
=reputation=, fama
=request=, petición
=to require=, requerir, exigir
=requirements=, necesidades
=to reserve=, reservar
=to reside=, residir, vivir
=residence=, domicilio
=resources=, recursos
=respect=, respeto
=to respect=, respetar
=respectable=, formal, respetable
=with respect to=, con respecto á, respecto de
=result=, resultado
=to resume=, reanudar
=retail=, al por menor
=to return=, devolver, regresar
=revenue=, ingresos
=review=, revista
=to revoke=, revocar
=reward=, premio
=ribbon=, cinta
=rice=, arroz
=rich, richly=, rico, acaudalado, ricamente
=to get rid of=, librarse, deshacerse de
=ridiculously low (of prices)=, irrisorio
=right=, derecho, justo
=to be right=, tener razón
=rim=, reborde
=riot=, motín
=rise=, alza, aumento
=risk=, riesgo, peligro
=risky=, arriesgado, peligroso
=river=, río
=to rob=, robar
=to rock (a cradle)=, mecer
=roll=, rollo
=to roll=, arrollar
=roller=, cilindro
=room=, cuarto, cabida
=rope=, soga
=rose=, rosa
=rotten=, podrido
=rough and ready man=, hombre llano
=round=, redondo
=route=, vía
=rubber=, caucho, goma elástica
=rubber heels (revolving)=, rodajas de goma
=rug=, tapete
=to ruin=, echar á perder, arruinar
=to rule=, regir, gobernar, dominar, reinar
=rule=, regla, régimen
=ruler=, regla
=rumour=, rumor, especie
=to run=, correr
=to run down=, atropellar
=to run to=, acudir á

=S=

=sad=, triste
=safely=, sin novedad, á salvamento
=sail=, vela
=sailing vessel=, velero=, buque=, de vela
=saint, holy=, santo
=salary=, sueldo
=sale=, venta
=salvage=, salvamento
=same=, mismo
=sardines=, sardinas
=sash=, cinto
=satins (brocaded)=, satines (brochados)
=satisfied=, satisfecho
=Saturday=, Sábado
=to save=, ahorrar
=sawing machine=, sierra mecánica
=to say=, decir, manifestar
=scalloped=, festoneado
=scandalous=, escandaloso
=scarcely=, apenas
=schooner=, goleta
=science=, ciencia
=scissors=, tijeras
=to scold=, reconvenir
=score=, veintena
=screw (of a boat)=, hélice (el or la)
=screws=, tornillos
=not over-scrupulous=, de manga ancha
=scuttle=, caja de carbón
=seal=, sello
=to seal=, sellar
=sealing-wax=, lacre
=to search=, buscar
=season=, estación, temporada
=to seat=, asentar
=secretary=, secretario
=to secure=, asegurar
=securities=, valores
=to see=, ver
=seeing that=, visto que
=to seem=, parecer
=to select=, elegir, escoger
=selection=, surtido
=to sell=, vender
=selvedge=, orilla
=senate=, senado
=to send=, enviar, mandar, remitir
=to send back=, devolver
=to send a remittance=, hacer una remesa
=to send for=, mandar buscar
=sensible=, discreto, juicioso
=sentence=, frase
=September=, Setiembre
=sergeant=, sargento
=series=, la serie
=to serve=, servir
=service=, servicio, utilidad
=session (parliamentary)=, legislatura
=to set out=, partir
=set of patterns=, muestrario
=to settle=, arreglar, definir, liquidar
=settlement=, saldo
=several=, varios
=shade (of colour)=, el matiz
=shame=, vergüenza
=shape=, forma
=share=, acción
=shareholder=, accionista
=sharp=, agudo
=shawl=, chal
=shears=, cizallas
=sheet (bed)=, sábana
=shell-fish=, mariscos
=to shelter=, abrigar
=shilling=, chelín
=ship=, barco, buque, navío
=to ship=, embarcar
=shipment=, remesa, embarque
=shipowners=, armadores
=shipper=, exportador
=shirt=, camisa
=shocking=, escandaloso
=shoes=, zapatos
=shop=, tienda
=shopkeeper=, tendero
=short=, corto
=short cut=, atajo
=shortly=, en breve=, próximamente
=shoulder=, espalda
=shout=, grito
=shovel=, pala
=to show=, mostrar, acusar, exhibir, hacer constar, enseñar
=shrewd=, fino
=to shrink=, encojerse
=shrivelled=, encojido
=shrunk=, encojido
=side=, lado
=side arms=, armas blancas
=sight=, vista
=to sight=, avistar
=sign=, señal
=to sign=, firmar
=signature=, firma
=signed guarantee=, indemnidad
=to be silent=, callarse
=silk=, seda
=silk hat=, sombrero de copa
=silver=, plata
=similar=, semejante
=simpleton=, tonto, necio
=sincere=, sincero
=sincere man=, hombre llano
=sincerity=, sinceridad
=single, simple, plain=, simple
=sister-in-law=, cuñada
=skates=, patines
=sketch=, croquis
=skin=, piel
=sky=, cielo
=sky-blue=, azul celeste
=slack=, flojo
=slackness=, flojedad
=slate colour=, plomo
=sleep=, sueño
=to sleep=, dormir
=slender=, exiguo
=slight=, exiguo, ligero
=slip=, boletín, volante
=slope=, cuesta
=slow=, lento, moroso, tardo
=by slow train=, á pequeña velocidad
=slowly=, despacio
=sly=, socarrón
=small=, pequeño, exiguo
=smaller=, menor
=smallware=, quincalla
=smile=, sonrisa
=to smoke (of a chimney)=, humear
=smooth=, liso
=smuggling=, matute
=to snow=, nevar
=snow=, nieve
=so and so=, fulano
=so, as … as=, tan … como
=society=, sociedad
=socks=, calcetines
=soda=, soda, sosa
=sofa=, el sofá
=soft=, blando, suave
=to soften=, ablandar
=soil=, suelo
=soldier=, soldado
=sole=, exclusivo
=solely=, únicamente
=to solicit=, solicitar
=solicitor=, abogado (procurador legal)
=solidity=, solidez
=some=, algún, alguno, algunos, unos
=something=, algo
=somewhat=, algo
=soon=, pronto
=sordid=, ruin
=sorrow=, dolor
=to be sorry=, sentir
=so that=, de modo que, para que
=so to say=, por decirlo así
=sour=, agrio
=source=, fuente, manantial
=source (to have from a good)=, tener de buena tinta
=south=, sur, sud
=space=, cabida
=spades=, palas
=Spanish=, español
=Spanish peas=, garbanzos
=spare pieces (machinery)=, piezas de repuesto
=sparrow=, gorrión
=to speak=, hablar
=to speak for=, abonar
=species=, especie
=speculation=, especulación
=speed=, prisa
=speedy=, pronto
=to spend=, gastar
=spices=, especias
=to spin=, hilar
=spinner=, hilador
=in spite of=, á pesar de
=to spoil=, gastar, echar á perder
=spoon=, cuchara
=spokes=, rayos
=spot=, mancha, punto, sitio
=spot cotton=, algodón disponible
=spring=, resorte
=spring (season)=, primavera
=squeamish=, melindroso
=to squeeze out=, exprimir, arrancar
=squire=, hijodalgo, hidalgo
=stain=, mancha
=stamp=, timbre
=stamp-rack=, porta-estampillas
=stamps (postage)=, sellos
=standard-bearer=, porta-bandera
=standing=, posición
=to start from=, arrancar de
=statement=, cuenta
=statistics=, estadísticas
=stay=, estancia
=to steal=, robar
=steam-engine=, máquina á vapor
=steamer=, buque de vapor, vapor
=steel=, acero
=step=, paso
=stick=, garrote
=still=, todavía
=sting=, herida (fig.)
=to stir=, remover
=stockings=, medias
=stock-jobber=, agiotista
=stocks=, existencias
=stool=, escaño
=to stop payment=, suspender los pagos
=to stop short in the middle of one's speech=, cortarse
=stores=, depósitos, almacenes
=storm=, temporal, tormenta
=stove=, estufa, calorífero
=stowage=, estiva
=straight=, derecho
=straightforward=, recto, leal
=to strain=, forzar
=strange=, extraño
=street=, calle
=to stretch=, extender
=strike=, huelga
=striped goods=, listados
=stripes=, rayas
=stroll=, paseo
=strong, fast, firm=, fuerte
=to struggle against=, luchar
=to study=, estudiar
=to stumble=, tropezar
=subject=, asunto
=to submit=, someter
=subsidence=, hundimiento
=to succeed=, suceder
=to succeed in=, conseguir, obtener
=success=, buen éxito
=such, such a=, tal
=sudden=, repentino
=to suffer=, sufrir
=suffering=, sufrimiento
=to suffice=, bastar
=sugar=, azúcar
=sugar mill=, trapiche
=suitings=, paños
=sum=, suma
=summer=, verano
=to summon=, citar ante los tribunales
=sun=, sol
=Sunday=, domingo
=supper=, cena
=to suppose=, suponer
=to suppress=, suprimir
=supply and demand=, demanda y oferta
=to supply oneself=, abastecerse
=surety=, fiador
=surface=, superficie
=to surprise=, maravillar
=surprising=, sorprendente
=to suspect=, sospechar
=to sweep=, barrer
=sword=, espada
=symptoms=, síntomas

=T=

=table=, mesa
=table (of figures)=, cuadro
=tact=, tacto
=tailor=, sastre
=to take=, tomar
=to take amiss=, tomar á mal
=to take away=, quitar
=to take care (of oneself)=, cuidar(se)
=to take charge=, encargarse
=to take into consideration=, tener en cuenta
=to take into tow=, traer á remolque, remolcar
=to take much trouble=, afanarse
=to take notice=, hacer caso
=to take on lease=, alquilar, tomar en arriendo
=to take place=, verificarse
=to take steps=, dar pasos
=to take the start=, tomar la delantera
=to take up=, recoger
=tallow greaves=, heces de sebo
=tariff reform=, reforma arancelaria
=task=, tarea
=tax=, impuesto
=tea=, té
=to teach=, enseñar
=teaching=, enseñanza
=teeth=, dientes
=to telephone=, telefonear
=to tell=, decir
=temper=, genio
=temporarily=, temporalmente
=tenant=, inquilino
=tender=, tierno
=term=, plazo
=terms=, condiciones
=textile=, textil
=textiles=, tejidos
=to thank=, agradecer
=thanks to … =, merced á …
=that=, ese,-a,-o, aquel-lla-llo, que
=their=, su
=then=, entonces, luego, pues
=there=, allá, allí, ahí
=therefore=, portanto
=there is=, =there are=, hay
=there to be=, haber
=thick=, grueso, espeso
=thief=, ladrón
=thimble=, dedal
=thing=, cosa
=to think=, creer, pensar
=third= (frac.), tercio
=thirst=, sed
=this=, este,-a,-o
=thousand=, mil
=threshing machines=, trilladores
=to throw=, echar
=to thunder=, tronar
=Thursday=, jueves
=ticket, etiqueta=, rótulo
=ticking=, terliz
=timber=, madera
=time=, tiempo, época
=at the same time=, al mismo tiempo, á la par que
=tin=, estaño
=to tire=, cansar
=to-day=, hoy
=ton=, tonelada
=tongs=, tenazas
=tongue=, lengua
=too (also)=, también
=too, too much=, demasiado
=tools=, herramientas
=top=, cima
=touch=, tacto
=to tow=, traer á remolque, remolcar
=towards=, para con, hacia
=to what extent?=, ¿hasta qué punto?
=town=, ciudad, población, villa, pueblo
=trade=, comercio
=trade union=, asociación de obreros
=train=, tren
=to transport=, tra(n)sportar
=to travel=, viajar
=traveller= (commercial), viajante
=traveller= (tourist, etc.), viajero
=treasure=, tesoro
=to treat=, =to try=, =to endeavour=, tratar
=tree=, árbol
=trial=, prueba, ensayo
=trick=, engañifa
=trifles=, pequeñeces
=to trifle with=, burlarse
=trifling amount=, una friolera
=trimmings=, guarniciones, adornos
=trouserings=, telas para pantalones
=trousers=, pantalones
=trunk=, baúl
=truss=, fardito
=trust=, confianza
=trustworthy=, fidedigno
=to trust=, confiar
=trustee=, síndico
=truth=, verdad
=to try=, probar, tratar
=Tuesday=, martes
=Turkey red handkerchiefs=, pañuelos de Andrinópolis
=turn for the worse=, empeoramiento
=to turn=, volver
=turnover=, giro
=twill=, asargado, cruzado, aterlizado, diagonal
=twine=, bramante
=to twist=, torcer
=tyres=, llantas

=U=

=umpire=, árbitro
=uncertainty=, incertidumbre
=uncle=, tío
=under=, debajo de
=to undersell=, malbaratar
=to understand=, comprender, entender
=to undertake=, comprometerse, emprender
=undertaking=, empresa
=uneasiness=, malcontento
=unfavorable=, desfavorable
=to unfold=, desplegar
=unforeseen=, imprevisto
=unhappy, unfortunate=, desdichado, infeliz
=unless=, á menos que
=unloading=, descarga
=unnavigable=, innavegable
=unprecedented=, sin precedente
=unripe=, inmaturo, verde
=unsuitability=, inconveniencia
=until=, hasta que
=unwillingly=, de mala gana
=upon=, sobre
=upright=, íntegro, cabal
=to upset=, desconcertar
=to urge=, apremiar, apresurar
=to use for the first time=, estrenar
=useful=, útil
=usefulness=, utilidad
=utility=, utilidad

=V=

=vagabonds, (company of)=, hampa
=value=, valor
=valve=, válvula
=variety=, variedad
=varnish=, el barniz
=velvet=, terciopelo
=velveteen=, pana
=venture=, ensayo
=very=, muy
=vest=, chaleco
=via=, vía
=to vie with=, trabajar, ir, á porfía, habérselas con
=view=, vista
=villa=, quinta
=village=, pueblo
=vineyards=, viñas
=violet=, violeta
=virtue=, virtud
=to visit=, visitar
=vivid=, vivo
=vividly=, vivamente
=viz=., es decir, á saber
=vocabulary=, vocabulario

=W=

=wages=, sueldo
=waistcoat=, chaleco
=to wait for=, esperar
=to wait upon=, visitar
=to wake up=, despertar
=walk=, paseo
=to walk=, andar
=to want=, necesitar, querer
=to be wanted=, hacer falta
=to be wanting=, faltar
=want of foresight=, imprevidencia
=war=, guerra
=warehouse=, almacén
=warehouseman=, almacenero, dependiente de almacén
=to warn=, advertir
=to take warning=, escarmentar
=warrant=, cédula
=to warrant=, justificar
=to waste=, desperdiciar, malgastar
=waste-paper basket=, cestilla
=watch=, reloj
=to watch over=, vigilar
=water=, agua
=way=, manera, modo, vía
=wealth=, riqueza
=wealthy=, acaudalado
=to wear=, gastar, llevar
=to wear for the first time=, estrenar
=wearing apparel=, vestidos, ropa, hato
=to weave=, tejer
=weaver=, tejedor
=webbing=, tejido elástico
=Wednesday=, miércoles
=week=, semana
=weight=, peso
=to welcome=, agasajar
=well=, bien, pues
=west=, oeste
=to wet=, bañar
=whale=, ballena
=what=, qué (inter.), lo que
=wheat=, trigo
=when=, cuando
=whenever=, cuandoquiera
=where=, donde
=wherever=, dondequiera
=whether=, si, sea que
=which=, que, el cual
=whichever=, cualquiera
=while=, mientras
=whim=, antojo
=Whitsuntide=, Pentecostés
=white=, blanco
=who=, que, quien, el cual
=whoever=, quienquiera, cualquiera
=wholesale=, al por mayor
=whom=, quien
=whose=, cuyo
=wicked=, malo
=widower=, víudo
=width=, anchura, ancho
=wife=, mujer, esposa
=will=, voluntad
=to win=, vencer
=to win over=, granjearse
=wind=, viento
=window=, ventana
=wine=, vino
=wine (adj.)=, vinícolo
=winsome=, simpático
=winter=, invierno
=wireless=, radiograma
=wise=, juicioso, sabio
=to wish=, desear
=to wish to have=, querer
=wishful=, deseoso
=with great effort=, á duras penas
=within=, dentro de
=without=, sin, sin que
=woman=, mujer
=to wonder=, maravillarse
=to be wont=, soler
=wood=, madera
=wool=, lana
=word=, palabra, vocablo
=to work=, trabajar, obrar
=to work (mines)=, explotar
=workman=, obrero, operario
=workshop=, taller
=world=, mundo
=world (adj.)=, mundial
=worth=, valor
=to be worth=, poseer, valer
=to be worth while=, valer la pena
=wound=, herida
=to wound=, herir
=wrap=, bata
=wreck=, naufragar
=to wreck=, echar á perder
=to wrench=, arrancar
=to write=, escribir
=to write to each other=, escribirse
=writer=, escritor
=writing (n.)=, letra, escríto
=writing desk=, escritorio
=writing pad=, carpeta
=written agreement=, contrato
=to wrangle with someone=, habérselas con uno
=on the wrong side=, al revés

=Y=

=yard=, yarda
=yard (Spanish)=, vara
=yarn=, hilado
=year=, año
=yellow=, amarillo
=yes=, sí
=yesterday=, ayer
=yet=, todavía, aun
=to yield, to submit=, ceder, darse á partido
=young=, joven
=young age=, juventud
=young man, woman=, joven
=youth=, juventud

=Z=

=zinc=, zinc

APPENDIX I

PRINCIPAL EXCEPTIONS TO THE RULE ON SPANISH GENDER BY TERMINATION

1. Words of Greek etymology ending in ma—

El dilema (the dilemma)
El diploma (the diploma)
El epigrama (the epigram)
El problema (the problem)
El síntoma (the symptom)
El telegrama (the telegram)

etc., etc.

But La amalgama (the amalgamation)
La diadema (the diadem)
La estratagema (the stratagem)
La proclama (the proclamation)

2. Most of the compound nouns (very few in number)—

El cortaplumas (the penknife)
El guardacosta (the coasting-vessel)
El paraguas (the umbrella)
El tirabala (the popgun)

3. El día (the day)

El Etna (Etna (volcano))
El mapa (the map)
El sofá (the sofa)
El Volga [210] (the Volga)
And all words ending in accented a.

[Footnote 210: And all rivers and mountains ending in a.]

4. Masculine nouns ending in d—

El adalid (the warrior or chieftain)
El ardid (the trick)
El ataúd (coffin)
El césped (the turf, lawn)
El sud (the south)

5. Masculine nouns ending in ión—

El embrión (the embryo)
El gorrión (the sparrow)
El morrión (parts of an armour)
El sarampión (measles)

6. Feminine nouns ending in i or y—

La diócesi (the diocese)
La grey (the flock)
La ley (the law)
La metrópoli (the metropolis)

Almost all.

7. Feminine noun ending in j—
La troj (the granary)

8. Feminine nouns ending in l—

La cal (lime)
La capital (capital—town)
La cárcel (prison)
La col (cabbage)
La miel (honey)
La piel (skin)
La sal (salt)
La señal (signal)
La vocal (vowel)

And a few more.

9. Feminine nouns ending in n—

La cargazón (the load)
La crin (the horsehair)
La desazón (the ailment)
La imagen (the image)
La razón (the reason)
La sinrazón (the injustice)
La sartén (the frying-pan)
La sien (the temple)

Almost all.

10. Feminine nouns ending in o—

La mano (the hand)

Only word, excepting "nao" (ship), now obsolete, and "seo" (cathedral), little used.

11. Feminine nouns ending in r—

La flor (the flower)
La labor (the needlework)
La segur (the axe)

Almost all.

12. Feminine nouns ending in s—

La bilis (the bile)
La crisis (the crisis)
La elipsis (ellipsis)
La lis (fleur-de-lis)
La mies (the crop)
La perífrasis (the periphrase)
La tos (the cough)

And a few others.

13. Feminine noun ending in u—

La tribu (the tribe)

14. Feminine nouns ending in z—

La codorniz (the partridge)
La cerviz (the cervix)
La cruz (the cross)
La coz (the back-kick)
La luz (the light)
La nariz (the nose)
La nuez (the nut)
La pez (the pitch)
La voz (the voice)
La raíz (the root)
La tez (the complexion)
La vez (the time, once, etc., etc.)

And a few others less important.

15. Feminine nouns ending in e. (This is the most numerous list of exceptions)—

Las aves (the birds)
La barbarie (the barbarity)
La base (the basis)
La calle (the street)
La carne (the flesh)
La fiebre (the fever)
La fuente (the fountain)
El hambre (f.), (the hunger)
La mente (the mind)
La noche (the night)
La parte (the part)
La quiete (the quiet)
La sangre (the blood)
La serpiente (the serpent)
La torre (the tower)

Besides the masculine and feminine genders, some nouns are called: de género común, epiceno, and ambiguo. The noun is called "de género común"
(common gender) when with the same termination it may indicate both a male and female being by using a different article—

Un—una albacea (an executor, executrix)
Un—una artista (an artist, artiste)
Un—una Belga[211] (a Belgian)
Un—una idiota (an idiot)
Un—una indígena (a native)
Un—una mártir (a martyr)
Un—una reo (a culprit)
Un—una culpable (a culprit)
Un—una gimnasta (a gymnast)
Un—una homicida (a murderer, a murderess)
Un—una suicida (one who commits suicide)
Un—una testigo (a witness)

[Footnote 211: And so all nouns of nationality ending in a or e.]

The noun is called Epicene when, with the same termination and the same article, it indicates both male and female—

El águila (the eagle—male and female)
El buitre (the vulture—male and female)
El avestruz (the ostrich—male and female)
La rata (the rat—male and female)

Distinction would be made by adding "macho" or "hembra."

El águila macho (the eagle—male)
El avestruz hembra (the ostrich—female)

N.B.—Most of the names of animals belong to this class.

The term "ambiguo" is applied to nouns which are masculine or feminine, with different meaning, or the gender of which is not well defined—

Análasis (analysis), doubtful gender
El aroma (the aroma) La aroma (the acacia flower)
La or el arte (the art) Los or Las artes
Las bellas artes (the arts, generally fem.)
(the fine arts, always fem.)
La barba (the beard) El barba (a character in Spanish
plays)
El cabecilla (chieftain or ringleader La cabecilla (the little head)
of rebels)
El calavera (the madcap) La calavera (the skull)
El canal (the canal) La canal (the gutter)
El capital (money) La capital (the town)
El cólera (cholera) La cólera (wrath)
El cometa (comet) La cometa (the kite, toy)
El corte (the cut) La corte (the court)
El cura (the priest) La cura (the cure)
El doblez (the fold) La doblez (duplicity)
El or la dote (dowry), generally Las dotes (good parts, gifts),
fem. in the pl. always fem.
El fantasma (the phantom) La fantasma (the bogie-man)
El frente (the front) La frente (the forehead)
El haz (the sheaf) La haz (face, surface)
Lente (lenses), doubtful gender
La orden (command, order for El orden (order); as, buen orden
goods, etc.) (good order)
Las sagradas órdenes (holy orders) Las varias órdenes (various religious
orders)
El parte (report) La parte (part)
El pendiente (ear-ring) La pendiente (slope)
El pez (fish) La pez (pitch)
El tema (exercise, theme) La tema (fear, obstinacy)
Tilde (~), doubtful gender

"Mar" (sea) is either Masc. or fem., but names of particular seas are all masculine—

El mar rojo (the Red Sea)
El mar Caspio (the Caspian Sea)

The compounds of "mar" are feminine—

Baja mar (low sea)
Pleamar (high water)

The following masculine nouns have their equivalent feminine formed by inflexion.

N.B.—We omit those in which the inflexion consists of the change of the last vowel to a, or the addition of a, as—

El autor, la autora (the author, authoress)
El holgazán, la holgazana (the lazy man, lazy woman)
El primo, la prima (the cousin, masc. and fem.)
El vecino, la vecina (the neighbour, masc. and fem.)

El abad (abbot) La abadesa (abbess)
El actor (actor) La actriz (actress)
El barón (baron) La baronesa (baroness)
El canónigo (canon) La canonesa (canoness)
El cantor (singer) La cantatriz (singer)
El conde (count) La condesa (countess)
El diacono (deacon) La diaconisa (deaconess)
El duque (duke) La duquesa (duchess)
El elector (elector) La electriz (electress)
El emperador (emperor) La emperatriz (empress)
El filósofo (philosopher) La filosofesa (philosopher)
El gallo (cock) La gallina (hen)
El héroe (hero) La heroína (heroine)
El poeta (poet) La poetisa (poetess)
El principe (prince) La princesa (princess)
El profeta (prophet) La profetisa (prophetess)
El rey (king) La reina (queen)
El sacerdote (priest) La sacerdotisa (priestess)
El vizconde (viscount) La vizcondesa (viscountess)
El Zar (czar) La Zarina (czarina)

Notice also—

El asistente (assistant) La asistenta (assistant)
El infante (child under 7; La infanta (child; Span. Royal
also Span., Royal Prince) Princess)
El pariente (relative) La parienta (relative)
El presidente (president) La presidenta (president)
El sirviente (manservant) La sirvienta (maidservant)

There are only a few more of this class.

N.B.—

Un abogado makes in the fem. Una muger abogado
Un médico " " " " " médico
Un comadrón " " " " comadre (midwife)

The following nouns of persons and animals have two different forms to represent the two sexes—

El buey (ox) La vaca (cow)
El caballo (stallion) La yegua (mare)
El carnero (ram) La oveja (ewe)
El fraile (friar) La soror (sister)
El hombre (man) La muger (woman)
El macho cabrío or cabrón (he-goat) La cabra (she-goat)
El marido (husband) La muger (the wife)
El padre (father) La madre (mother)
El padrastro (step-father) La madrastra (step-mother)
El padrino (god-father) La madrina (god-mother)
El toro (bull) La vaca (cow)
El yerno (son-in-law) La nuera (daughter-in-law)

Many names of animals are either common, as—

El ánade, la ánade (the duck)
El liebre, la liebre (the hare)
El tigre, la tigre (the tiger, tigress)

Or they change o of the masculine into a or add a, to form the feminine, as—

Un ganso (a gander) Una gansa (a goose)
Un león (the lion) Una leona (a lioness)
Un mulo (a mule) Una mula (a she-mule)
Un pollino (an ass) Una pollina (a she-ass)

Most are epicene as already stated (p. 246).

APPENDIX II

SPANISH COMMON NOUNS, IN ORDINARY USE, WHICH ARE USED ONLY IN THE PLURAL

Afueras (environs)
Aguaderas (frames to carry water)
Albricias (reward for good news—also used as interjection: joy! joy!!)
Andas (stretcher, also frame for carrying an image)
Calendas (calends)
Calzoncillos (drawers)
Carnestolendas (carnival)
Celos (jealously—"Celo"—zeal)
Hacer cosquillas (to tickle)
Despabilladoras (snuffers)
Enaguas (skirt)
Fauces (gullet)
Modales (manners)
Mientes—also Mente (the mind)
Parrillas (gridiron)
Puches (sort of fritters)
Tenazas (tongs, pincers)
Tijeras (scissors)
Tinieblas (utter darkness)
Víveres (victuals)
Zaragüelles (kind of breeches)

Note the following—

Á ciegas (blindly)
Á ojos cegarritas (blindly)
Á horcajadas (astride)
Á hurtadillas (on the sly)
Á sabiendas (knowingly)
De puntillas (on tiptoe)
Á tientas (groping)
De bóbilis bóbilis (without toil)
De bruces (on all fours)
En ayunas (fasting)
En volandas (in the air, off one's feet)

The following plurals, besides the ordinary, have also a different meaning from the singular—

El alfiler (pin) Los alfileres (pins, pin-money)
El día (day) Los días (days, birthday)
La esposa (wife) Las esposas (wives, handcuffs)
El grillo (the cricket) Los grilles (crickets, shackles)
La letra (letter) Las letras (letters—literary knowledge)
El padre (father) Los padres[212] (fathers, parents)

[Footnote 212: In the same manner all masculine plurals include also the plurals of both genders, as: Hermanos (brothers, also brothers and sisters).]

We make the following remarks on the plural of compound words.

The elements which concur to the formation of compound nouns are—

A B
Verbs Adjectives
Prepositions Nouns
Adverbs Participles
Conjunctions Pronouns
Prefixes

GENERAL RULE—

The elements in A are invariable except:

Un bullebulle (busybody), Unos bullebulles
Un quehacer (occupation), Unos quehaceres
Pasapasa (sleight of hand), Pasapasas (sleight of hand tricks)

The elements in B take the mark of the plural:

Alzacuello (minister's collar) Alzacuellos
Alzapaño (curtain hook), Alzapañios
Andaniño (child's cart), Andaniñios
Antepasado (ancestor), Antepasados
Ave María (a prayer), Ave Marías
Cualquiera (whatever), Cualesquiera
Entremetido (intruder, busybody), Entremetidos
Gentilhombre (man of gentle birth), Gentileshombres
Guardafuego (fire-guard), Guardafuegos
Hijodalgo (squire), Hijosdalgo
Pasamano (handrail, lace-edgings), Pasamanos
Pasatiempo (pastime), Pasatiempos
Picaparte (latch or latchkey), Picapartes
Pisaverde (beau), Pisaverdes
Portaestandarte (standard bearer), Portaestandartes
Portafusil (musket-sling), Portafusiles
Puercoespín (porcupine), Puercosespines
Quienquiera (whoever), Quienesquiera
Quitasol (parasol), Quitasoles
Ricahembra (woman of gentle birth), Ricashembras
Sobrecama (counterpane), Sobrecamas
Sobredicho (aforesaid), Sobredichos
Tapaboca (slap on the mouth), Tapabocas
Tirabotón (button-hook), Tirabotones

N.B.—When the second of the two words commences with r this letter should be doubled—

Ropa (clothes), guardarropa (wardrobe), guardarropas (pl.)

In compound nouns (very rare) formed of two nouns of which the first stands as an adjective to the second, the first noun remains invariable, the second only taking the mark of the plural—

Ferrocarril (railway), Ferrocarriles
Madreselva (honeysuckle), Madreselvas

In the following compound nouns formed of an adjective and a noun, the adjective remains invariable in the plural, as—

Bajamar (low tide), Bajamares
Bajorelieve (bas-relief), Bajorelieves
Belladona (belladonna), Belladonas
Blancomanjar (blanc-mange), Blancomanjares
Plenamar (full tide), Plenamares
Salvoconducto (safe conduct), Salvoconductos
Salvaguardia (safeguard), Salvaguardias
Santa Bárbara (powder magazine), Santa Bárbaras

In compound nouns formed of two words, the first of which has suffered the loss or change of a letter, this first component remains invariable—

(N.B.—Many such words are found in Spanish.)

Artimaña (trick), Artimañas
Barbicano (white-bearded man), Barbicanos
Barbilindo (beardless man), Barbilindos
Boquirrubio (rosy-lipped), Boquirrubios
Cojitranco (lame fellow—disparagingly), Cojitrancos
Cuellierguido (stiff-necked man), Cuellierguidos
Gallipavo (turkey), Gallipavos
Manirroto (spendthrift), Manirrotos
Marisabidilla (blue stocking), Marisabidillas
Ojinegro (black-eyed), Ojinegros
Ojizarco (blue-eyed), Ojizarcos
Patizambo (bandy-legged), Patizambos
Pechicolorado (robin redbreast), Pechicolorados
Pleamar (high tide), Pleamares
Tragicomedia (tragi-comedy), Tragicomedias
Viandante (wayfarer), Viandantes

The following make their plural as follows—

Bancarrota (bankruptcy), Bancarrotas
Coliflor (cauliflower), Coliflores
Dares y tomares (wrangling), used only in pl.
Dimes y diretes (ifs, ands and buts), used only in pl.
Don Diego de noche (four o'clocks—flower), Don Diegos de noche
Maritornes (ill-shaped woman), Maritornes
Parabién (compliment), Parabienes
Vaivén (vibration), Vaivenes

The following are examples of the large class of nouns (compound) formed with a verb or adverb and a plural noun and which are used for both numbers—

Azotacalles (idler)
Buscavidas (pryer)
Cortaplumas (penknife)
Chupaflores (humming-bird)
Destripaterrones (navvy)
Lavamanos (wash-hand stand)
Limpiabotas (boot-black)
Matamoros (boaster)
Mondadientes (toothpick)
Papahueros (ninny)
Papamoscas (ninny)
Papanatas (ninny)
Paracaídas (parachute)
Paraguas (umbrella)
Pelagatos (ragamuffin)
Pintamonas (slap-dasher or bad partner)
Sacacorchos (corkscrew)
Salvavidas (life-boats)
Sepancuantos (slap or blow)

The following also are used for both numbers without alteration—

Correveidile (tale-bearer)
Hazmereir (laughing-stock)
Metomentodo (busybody)
Paternoster (Lord's Prayer)
Quitaipón (ornament for headstall of draught beasts)
Sábelotodo (presumptious man)
Sinvergüenza (barefaced man)

APPENDIX III

PRINCIPAL NAMES OF COUNTRIES, TOWNS, ETC., (WITH CORRESPONDING SPANISH
ADJECTIVES)

Abisinia (abisinio), Abyssinia
Adrianópolis, Adrianopole
África (africano), Africa
Álava (alaveño, alavés), Alava
Albania (albanés), Albania
Alcalá de Henares (complutense), Alcalá
Alemania (alemán), Germany
Alicante (alicantino), Alicante
Alsacia (alsaciano), Alsatia
Amberes, Antwerp
América (americano), America
Andalucía (andaluz), Andalusia
Antillas (antillano), West Indies
Arabia (árabe, arábigo), Arabia
Aragón (aragonés), Arragon
Argel (argelino), Algiers
Argentina (argentine), Argentine
Armenia (armenio), Armenia
Asia (asiático), Asia
Atenas (ateniense), Athens
Austria (austríaco), Austria
Ávila (abulense), Avila
Barcelona (barcelonés), Barcelona
Basilea, Basle
Baviera (bávaro), Bavaria
Belén, Bethlehem
Bélgica (belga, bélgico), Belgium
Bilbao (bilbaíno), Bilbao
Bohemia (bohemo), Bohemia
Bolivia (boliviano), Bolivia
Bolonia (boloñés), Bologna
Brasil (brasileño), Brazil
Bretaña (bretón), Brittany
Brujas, Bruges
Bruselas, Brussels
Buenos Aires (bonaerense, porteño), Buenos Aires
Bulgaria (búlgaro), Bulgaria
Burdeos, Bordeaux
Burgos (burgalés), Burgos
Cádiz (gaditano), Cadiz
Calabria (calabrés), Calabria
Caldea (caldeo), Chaldaea
Canadá (canadiense), Canada
Canarias (canario), Canary Islands
Caracas (caraqueño), Caracas
Cartago (cartaginés), Carthage
Castilla (castellano), Castille
Cataluña (catalán), Catalonia
Cerdeña (sardo), Sardinia
Chile (chileno), Chili
China (chino), China
Colombia (colombiano), Colombia
Copenhague, Copenhagen
Córdoba (cordobés), Cordova
Córcega (corso), Corsica
Corfú (corfiota), Corfu
Dardanelos, Dardenelles
Dinamarca (danés, dinamarqués), Denmark
Dresde, Dresden
Ecuador (ecuatoriano), Equador
Egipto (egipcio), Egypt
Escocia (escocés), Scotland
Esmirna, Smyrna
España (español), Spanish
Estocolmo, Stockholm
Etiopia (etíope), Ethiopia
Europa (europeo), European
Extremadura (extremeño) Extremadura
Fenicia (fenicio), Phoenician
Filipinas (filipino), Philippine Islands
Flandes (flamenco), Flanders
Florencia (florentino), Florentine
Francia (francés), France
Gales (galés), Wales
Galicia (gallego), Galicia (Spain)
Gascuña (gascón), Gascony
Génova (genovés), Genoa
Gibraltar (gibraltareño), Gibraltar
Ginebra (ginebrino), Geneva
Gran Bretaña (británico), Great Britain
Granada (granadino), Granada
Grecia (griego), Greece
Guadalajara (guadalajareño), Guadalajara
Guatemala (guatemalteco), Guatemala
Guipúzcoa (guipuzcoano), Guipuzcoa
Habana (habanero, habano), Havannah
Holanda (holandés), Holland
Honduras (hondureño), Honduras
Hungría (húngaro), Hungary
India (indios), India
Inglaterra (inglés), England
Irlanda (irlandés), Ireland
Italia (italiano), Italy
Japón (japonés), Japan
La Mancha (manchego), La Mancha
León (leonés), Leon (Spain)
Lieja, Liège
Lima (limeño), Lima
Liorna (liornés), Leghorn
Lisboa (lisbonense), Lisbon
Lombardia (lombardo), Lombardy
Londres (londinense), London
Macedonia (macedonio), Macedonia
Madrid (madrileño), Madrid
Málaga (malagueño), Malaga
Malta (maltés), Malta
Mallorca (mallorquín), Majorca
Maracaibo (maracaibero), Maracaibo
Marruecos (marroquí), Morocco
Marsella (marsellés), Marseilles
Menorca (menorquín), Minorca
Méjico (mejicano), Mexico
Murcia (murciano), Murcia
Nápoles (napolitano), Naples
Navarra (navarro), Navarre
Normandia (normando), Normandy
Noruega (noruego), Norway
Pamplona (pamplonés), Pamplona
Paraguay (paraguayano), Paraguay
Paris (parisiense), Paris
Persia (persa or persiano), Persia
Perú (peruano), Peru
Piamonte (piamontés), Piedmont
Polonia (polaco), Poland
Portugal (portugués), Portugal
Puerto Rico (portorriqueño), Porto Rico
Roma (romano), Rome
Rumania (rumano), Roumania
Rusia (ruso), Russia
Saboya (saboyardo), Savoy
Sajonia (sajón), Saxony
Salamanca (salmantino, salamanques), Salamanca
Salvador (salvadoreño), Salvador
San Sebastian (donostiarra), San Sebastian
Serbia (serbio), Serbia
Sevilla (sevillano), Seville
Sicilia (siciliano), Sicily
Suecia (sueco), Sweden
Suiza (suizo), Switzerland
Tetuán (tetuaní), Tetuan
Troya (troyano), Troy
Túnez (tunecino), Tunis
Turquía (turco), Turkey
Uruguay (uruguayano), Uruguay
Valencia (valenciano), Valencia
Valladolid (valisoletano), Valladolid
Varsovia (varsoviano), Warsaw
Vascongadas, Provincias (vascongado, vascuence), Basque Provinces
Venecia (veneciano), Venice
Venezuela (venezolano), Venezuela
Vera Cruz (veracruzano), Vera Cruz
Viena (vienés), Vienna
Vigo (vigués), Vigo
Vitoria (vitoriano), Vitoria
Yucatán (yucateco), Yucatan
Zaragoza (zaragozano), Zaragoza

APPENDIX IV

AUGMENTATIVES AND DIMINUTIVES[213]

[Footnote 213: The terminations ón and ito or ico may be taken by practically all nouns (avoiding cacophony, as: Pantalonón, habitacionóna, etc.); the others may not and consequently should not be used by students, until learnt by practice.]

Bestiecita (little beast)
Bestiezuela (little beast) (disparaging)
Chiquito (little child)
Chiquitín (little child)
Florecita (little flower)
Florecilla (little flower) (insignificant)
Hombrón (big, tall man)
Hombrote (big, tall man) (disparaging)
Hombracho (big, tall man) (disparaging)
Hombrachón (big, tall man) (disparaging)
Hombrazo (big, tall man) (disparaging)
Hombronazo (big, tall man) (disparaging)
Juanito (little John)
Labradorcito (little labourer)
Lagarto—Lagartija (little lizard)
Lío—Liecito (little bundle)
Librón (large, big book)
Librazo (large, big book) (disparaging)
Libracho (large, big book) (disparaging)
Librote (large, big book) (disparaging)
Llavín (little key, latchkey)
Manuel—Manolo (little Manuel)
Manuel—Manolito (little Manuel)
Madrecita (little mother)
Madrecica (little mother)
Pajarraco (big bird) (disparaging)
Papelón (large paper)
Plazoleta (little square)
Reinecita (little queen)
Tamborcito[214] (little drum)
Tamborcico (little drum)

[Footnote 214: Ito is more Castillian. Ico is more Aragonese. They are both used.]

We repeat that the peculiarity of Augmentative and Diminutive terminations (with the exception of the Augment. on, which denotes only increase) is that besides the idea of increase or diminution a further disparaging or endearing meaning is implied although not distinctly defined.

These terminations in many cases substitute the use of adjectives to great advantage, and are largely used by Spaniards, especially the diminutives which, for this reason, should be carefully noticed.

A diminutive noun can also be further qualified by an adjective, as—

Mi padre me regaló este gracioso librito: My father made me a present of this pretty little book.

Diminutives can be made of Augmentatives and vice-versa—

Escoba (broom), Escobilla, Escobillón
Sala (drawing-room), Salón, Saloncillo

If a masculine noun ends in a its diminutive also ends in a—

Un drama (drama), Un dramita
Un poema (poem), Un poemita

But not nouns that indicate male persons—

Papá (Papa), Papaíto

Although ón and ote are generally augmentative terminations, in the following words and a few more, they are used as diminutives—

Calle (street) Callejón (narrow street, alley)
Carro (cart) Carretón (little cart)
Isla (island) Islote (little barren island)
Torre (tower) Torrejón (turret)

Besides Augmentative and Diminutive terminations, there are some terminations which, without indicating increase or decrease, are used to indicate disparagement pure and simple—

Calducho (bad broth)
Gentualla (mob)
Gentuza (insignificant people)
Libraco (nasty book)
Madrastra (step-mother)
Medicastro (bad doctor)
Mujeruca (old wife, gossip)
Poetastro (bad poet)

The Augmentative and Diminutive terminations (especially the latter) are found added to adjectives and, although more rarely, to other parts of speech also. They must be learnt by practice, however, as they cannot be used indiscriminately.

EXAMPLES—

El picarillo (picaruelo) quiere el otro cuello que es más blanquito: The little rogue wants the other collar which is nice and clean (lit., whiter).

Como me gusta la blanca nieve acabadita de caer: How pretty is the snow just newly fallen.

Mira á aquella chica tan bien vestidita de azul: Look at that little girl so prettily dressed in blue

Vino callandito: He came in as quietly as a mouse.

Vive cerquita de nuestra casa: He lives quite close to our house.

Poquito á poco hila la vieja el copo (proverb): Little by little the old woman spins her distaff (Slow and sure wins the race)

Translation of the English "ish" after colours—

Amarillento (yellowish)
Azulado (bluish)
Azulino (bluish)
Blanquecino (whitish)
Morenito (brownish)
Que tira á moreno (brownish)
Negruzco (blackish)
Pardusco (greyish)
Que tira á pardo ó gris (greyish)
Rojizo (reddish)
Verdoso (greenish)
Verdusco (greenish)

Notice also—

Anaranjado (orange-coloured)
Avellanado (nut-coloured, tawny)
Celeste (sky-blue)
Dorado (golden)
Pajizo (straw-coloured)
Perlino (pearl-coloured)
Plateado (silvery)
Rosado (rose-coloured, pink, rosy)
Terreo (ashen-pale)
Trigueño (brown, wheat-coloured)

APPENDIX V

VERBS WHICH DIFFER IN REGIMEN FROM THEIR ENGLISH EQUIVALENTS. EXTRACTED
FROM THE GENERAL LIST OF THE GRAMMAR OF THE SPANISH ACADEMY[215]

[Footnote 215: This list is comprehensive, but not exhaustive; some of these verbs, besides the preposition given, may be followed by others.
Practice in reading is the best master.]

Abordar (una nave) á (or con) otra: To board (a ship).
Abrasarse en deseos: To be burning with desire.
Abundar de (or en) riquezas: To abound with riches.
Abusar de la amistad: To abuse friendship.
Acertar con la casa: To find the right house.
Adelantarse á otros: To take the start on others.
Admirarse de un suceso: To wonder at an event.
Aficionarse á alguna cosa: To grow fond of anything.
Alejarse de su tierra: To depart from one's country.
Alimentarse con (or de) yerbas: To feed on vegetables.
Anticiparse á otro: To forestall another.
Apiadarse con los pobres: To have pity on the poor.
Aportar á Barcelona: To put into Barcelona.
Apreciar en mucho: To appreciate highly.
Arder de cólera: To burn with anger.
Armarse de paciencia: To arm oneself with patience.
Arrimarse á la pared: To lean against the wall.
Arrostrar (con (or por)) los peligros: To face the dangers.
Atender (á) los negocios: To attend to business.
Aventajarse á otros: To excel others.

Bañar con (de or en) lágrimas: To bathe with tears.
Barbear con la pared: To run against the wall.
Brindar á la salud de alguno: To drink the health of someone.
Brindar con regalos: To give presents.
Burlarse de algo: To laugh at something.

Caber de pies: There to be standing room.
Calificar de docto: To call one learned.
Cambiar una cosa con (or por) otra: To exchange one thing for another.
Campar por su respeto: To keep to oneself.
Carecer de medios: To lack means.
Casar or casarse con alguno: To marry someone.
Cesar de correr: To cease running.
Cifrar su dicha en la virtud: To make one's happiness consist in virtue.
Clavar á (or en) la pared: To nail on the wall.
Cojear del pie derecho: To limp with the right foot.
Colgar de un clavo: To hang on a nail.
Colmar de mercedes: To load with benefits.
Comerciar con su crédito: To trade on one's credit.
Comprar de (or á) una persona: To buy from someone.
Comprar al fiado: To buy on credit.
Comprometerse á pagar: To undertake to pay.
Confiar en (or de) alguno: To trust anybody.
Conservarse con (or en) salud: To keep in good health.
Contar con su auxilio: To count on his help.
Contravenir á la ley: To contravene the law.
Convenir al enfermo: To suit the patient.
Correr con los gastos: To undertake the expense.
Cortar por lo sano: To cut short (an argument, etc.).
Cumplir á uno hacer una cosa: To be one's duty to do something.
Chancearse con alguno: To joke with someone.

Dañarse del pecho: To injure one's chest.
Dar con la carga en el suelo: To throw down the load.
Dar con quien lo entiende: To come across someone who understands it.
Dar contra un poste: To knock against a post.
Dar de barato: To grant for argument's sake.
Darse por vencido: To give it up.
Decir bien una cosa con otra: To match well together.
Decir para sí: To say to oneself.
Dejar de escribir: To cease writing, to fail to write.
Demandar ante el juez (or en juicio): To summon.
Depender de alguno: To be dependent on someone.
Desayunarse con chocolate: To breakfast on chocolate.
Desconfiar de alguno: To mistrust one.
Descuidarse de (or en) su obligación: To neglect one's duty.
Desfallecer de ánimo: To lose courage.
Deshacerse de los géneros: To get rid of the goods.
Detestar de la mentira: To hate lying.
Disfrutar de buena renta: To enjoy a good income.
Doblar por un difunto: To sound the death knell.
Dudar de alguna cosa: To doubt something.

Echar en tierra: To throw on the ground.
Echar de casa: To turn out of the house.
Echar de ver una cosa: To perceive (realise) a thing.
Echarla de rico: To assume airs of a rich man.
Embelesarse con alguna cosa: To go into raptures over anything.
Embutir de algodón: To stuff with cotton.
Enajenarse de alguna cosa: To do away with anything.
Encargarse de algún negocio: To undertake a business.
Encontrarse con un amigo: To meet a friend.
Encuadernar á la rústica, en pasta: To bind in paper covers, in boards.
Escarmentar con la desgracia: To take warning from misfortune.
Esmerarse en alguna cosa: To take pains with anything.

Fiarse á (de, en) alguno: To trust in anyone.
Firmar de propria mano: To sign with one's own hand.
Forrar de (con, en) pieles: To line with skins.
Fumar en pipa: To smoke the pipe.

Girar á cargo de alguno: To draw on someone.
Girar sobre París: To draw on Paris.
Guardarse de alguno: To guard against anybody.
Gustar de bromas: To be fond of joking.

Habérselas con otros: To wrangle, to have a bone to pick, to vie with
Hacer de galán en un drama: To take the part of principal actor in a drama.
Herir de muerte: To wound fatally.
Hincarse de rodillas: To fall on one's knees.
Hocicar con (contra, en) alguna cosa: To run against anything.

Igualar (igualarse) á (or con) otro: To equal another, to match.
Indemnizar del perjuicio: To indemnify for the loss.
Influir con el jefe: To influence the chief.
Insistir en (sobre) una cosa: To insist on something.
Inspirar una idea á alguno: To inspire anybody with an idea.
Inundar de (or en) agua: To flood with water.

Librar á cargo de un banquero: To draw on a banker.
Librar una letra sobre Paris: To draw a bill on Paris.
Lindar (una tierra) con otra: To border on another.
Llegar á la posada: To reach the inn.
Llevarse bien con el vecino: To get on well with the neighbour.
Llover á cantaros: To rain in bucketfuls.

Maravillarse con (or de) una noticia: To be surprised at some news.
Marcar á fuego: To brand.
Mejorar de condición: To improve in condition.
Mejorar en tercio y quinto: To improve greatly.

Oler á rosas: To smell of roses.

Parecerse á otro: To be similar to another.
Pensar en (sobre) alguna cosa: To think of something.
Pensar para sí: To think to oneself.
Perecerse de risa: To die with laughter.
Pintar de azul: To paint blue.
Poblar de árboles: To plant with trees.
Ponerse á escribir: To commence writing.
Prescindir de una cosa: To dispense with anything.
Presumir de rico: To feign riches.
Proveer á la necesidad pública: To provide the needs of the public.

Quedar á deber: To remain owing.
Quedarse con lo ajeno: To keep other people's property.

Rebosar de alegría: To teem with joy.
Recibir á cuenta: To receive on account.
Recibir de criado: To admit as a servant.
Recibir por esposa: To receive as a wife.
Reclamar á fulano: To claim from so and so.
Responder á la pregunta: To answer the question.
Reventar de risa: To burst with laughter.
Rodear de una pared: To surround with a wall.

Saber á vino: To taste of wine.
Salirse con la suya: To have one's own way.
Salvarse á nado: To save oneself by swimming.
Sentarse á la mesa: To sit down at table.
Soñar con ladrones: To dream of thieves.
Suplicar (apelar) de la sentencia: To appeal against the sentence.

Tachar de ligero: To tax one with levity.
Tener á menos hablar á uno: Not to deign to speak to one.
Tenerse de pie: To stand on foot.
Teñir de (en) negro: To dye black.
Tomar á pecho: To take to heart.
Tomar hacia la derecha: To turn to the right.
Trabajar á destajo: To do work by the job.
Trabarse de palabras: To quarrel.
Transportar á lomo: To carry on one's back.

Varar en la playa: To run aground.
Velar á los muertos: To watch over the dead.
Vengarse de una ofensa: To avenge an insult.
Vengarse en el ofensor: To avenge oneself on the offender.
Venir á casa: To come home.
Ver de hacer algo: To try and do something.
Vestir á la moda: To dress in the fashion.
Vestir de máscara: To dress in fancy dress.
Vestirse de paño: To dress in cloth.
Vivir á su gusto: To live after one's taste.

CONJUGATION OF THE REGULAR AND AUXILIARY VERBS

The Simple tenses only are given—Compound tenses are formed with the verb "haber" followed by the past participle.

+———————————————————————————————————+
| Infinitive | | | | |
| Mood. | Hablar | Temer | Partir | Tener |
|———————————————————————————————————|
| Pres. Part. | Hablando | Temiendo | Partiendo | Teniendo |
|———————————————————————————————————|
| Past Part. | Hablado | Temido | Partido | Tenido |
|———————————————————————————————————|
| Indic. Pres. | Hablo | Temo | Parto | Tengo |
| | Hablas | Temes | Partes | Tienes |
| | Habla | Teme | Parte | Tiene |
| | Hablamos | Tememos | Partimos | Tenemos |
| | Habláis | Teméis | Partís | Tenéis |
| | Hablan | Temen | Parten | Tienen |
|———————————————————————————————————|
| Indic. Imperf. | Hablaba | Temía | Partía | Tenía |
| | Hablabas | Temías | Partías | Tenías |
| | Hablaba | Temía | Partía | Tenía |
| | Hablábamos | Temíamos | Partíamos | Teníamos |
| | Hablabais | Temíais | Partíais | Teníais |
| | Hablaban | Temían | Partían | Tenían |
|———————————————————————————————————|
|Past Def. | Hablé | Temí | Partí | Tuve |
| | Hablaste | Temiste | Partiste | Tuviste |
| | Habló | Temió | Partió | Tuvo |
| | Hablámos | Temimos | Partímos | Tuvimos |
| | Hablasteis | Temisteis | Partisteis | Tuvisteis |
| | Hablaron | Temieron | Partieron | Tuvieron |
|———————————————————————————————————|
| Future | Hablaré | Temeré | Partiré | Tendré |
| | Hablarás | Temerás | Partirás | Tendrás |
| | Hablará | Temerá | Partirá | Tendrá |
| | Hablaremos | Temeremos | Partiremos | Tendremos |
| | Hablaréis | Temeréis | Partiréis | Tendréis |
| | Hablarán | Temerán | Partirán | Tendrán |
|———————————————————————————————————|
| Conditional. | Hablaría | Temería | Partiría | Tendría |
| | Hablarías | Temerías | Partirías | Tendrías |
| | Hablaría | Temería | Partiría | Tendría |
| | Hablaríamos| Temeríamos | Partiríamos | Tendríamos |
| | Hablaríais | Temeríais | Partiríais | Tendríais |
| | Hablarían | Temerían | Partirían | Tendrían |
|———————————————————————————————————|
| Subj. Pres. | Hable | Tema | Parta | Tenga |
| | Hables | Temas | Partas | Tengas |
| | Hable | Tema | Parta | Tenga |
| | Hablemos | Temamos | Partamos | Tengamos |
| | Habléis | Temáis | Partáis | Tengáis |
| | Hablen | Teman | Partan | Tengan |
|———————————————————————————————————|
| Subj. Imperf. | Hablase | Temiese | Partiese | Tuviese |
|(1st form) | Hablases | Temieses | Partieses | Tuvieses |
| | Hablase | Temiese | Partiese | Tuviese |
| | Hablásemos | Temiésemos | Partiésemos | Tuviésemos |
| | Hablaseis | Temieseis | Partieseis | Tuvieseis |
| | Hablasen | Temiesen | Partiesen | Tuviesen |
|———————————————————————————————————|
| Subj. Imperf. | Hablara | Temiera | Partiera | Tuviera |
|(2nd form) | Hablaras | Temieras | Partieras | Tuvieras |
| | Hablara | Temiera | Partiera | Tuviera |
| | Habláramos | Temiéramos | Partiéramos | Tuviéramos |
| | Hablarais | Temierais | Partierais | Tuvierais |
| | Hablaran | Temieran | Partieran | Tuvieran |
|———————————————————————————————————|
| Subj. Future. | Hablare | Temiere | Partiere | Tuviere |
| | Hablares | Temieres | Partieres | Tuvieres |
| | Hablare | Temiere | Partiere | Tuviere |
| | Habláremos | Temiéremos | Partiéremos | Tuviéremos |
| | Hablareis | Temiereis | Partiereis | Tuviereis |
| | Hablaren | Temieren | Partieren | Tuvieren |
|———————————————————————————————————|
| Imperative. | Habla | Teme | Parte | Ten |
| | Hable | Tema | Parta | Tenga |
| | Hablemos | Temamos | Partamos | Tengamos |
| | Hablad | Temed | Partid | Tened |
| | Hablen | Teman | Partan | Tengan |
+———————————————————————————————————+

Auxiliary Verbs

+—————————————————————————————————+
| Infinitive | | | |
| Mood. | Haber | Ser | Estar |
|—————————————————————————————————|
| Pres. Part. | Habiendo | Siendo | Estando |
|—————————————————————————————————|
| Past Part. | Habido | Sido | Estado |
|—————————————————————————————————|
| Indic. Pres. | He | Soy | Estoy |
| | Has | Eres | Estás |
| | Ha | Es | Está |
| | Hemos | Somos | Estamos |
| | Habéis | Sois | Estáis |
| | Han | Son | Estan |
|—————————————————————————————————|
| Indic. Imperf. | Había | Era | Estaba |
| | Habías | Eras | Estabas |
| | Había | Era | Estaba |
| | Habíamos | Éramos | Estábamos |
| | Habíais | Erais | Estabais |
| | Habían | Eran | Estaban |
|—————————————————————————————————|
| Past Def. | Hube | Fuí | Estuve |
| | Hubiste | Fuiste | Estuviste |
| | Hubo | Fué | Estuvo |
| | Hubimos | Fuimos | Estuvimos |
| | Hubisteis | Fuisteis | Estuvisteis |
| | Hubieron | Fueron | Estuvieron |
|—————————————————————————————————|
| Future | Habré | Seré | Estaré |
| | Habrás | Serás | Estarás |
| | Habrá | Será | Estará |
| | Habremos | Seremos | Estaremos |
| | Habréis | Seréis | Estaréis |
| | Habran | Serán | Estarán |
|—————————————————————————————————|
| Conditional. | Habría | Sería | Estaría |
| | Habrías | Serías | Estarías |
| | Habría | Sería | Estaría |
| | Habríamos | Seríamos | Estaríamos |
| | Habríais | Seríais | Estaríais |
| | Habrían | Serían | Estarían |
|—————————————————————————————————|
| Subj. Pres. | Haya | Sea | Esté |
| | Hayas | Seas | Estés |
| | Haya | Sea | Esté |
| | Hayamos | Seamos | Estemos |
| | Hayáis | Seáis | Estéis |
| | Hayan | Sean | Estén |
|—————————————————————————————————|
| Subj. Imperf. | Hubiese | Fuese | Estuviese |
| (1st form) | Hubieses | Fueses | Estuvieses |
| | Hubiese | Fuese | Estuviese |
| | Hubiésemos | Fuesemos | Estuviesemos |
| | Hubieseis | Fueseis | Estuvieseis |
| | Hubiesen | Fuesen | Estuviesen |
|—————————————————————————————————|
| Subj. Imperf. | Hubiera | Fuera | Estuviera |
| (2nd form) | Hubieras | Fueras | Estuvieras |
| | Hubiera | Fuera | Estuviera |
| | Hubiéramos | Fueramos | Estuvieramos |
| | Hubierais | Fuerais | Estuvierais |
| | Hubieran | Fueran | Estivieran |
|—————————————————————————————————|
| Subj. Future | Hubiere | Fuere | Estuviere |
| | Hubieres | Fueres | Estuvieres |
| | Hubiere | Fuere | Estuviere |
| | Hubiéremos | Fuéremos | Estuviéremos |
| | Hubiereis | Fuereis | Estuviereis |
| | Hubieren | Fueren | Estuvieren |
|—————————————————————————————————|
| Imperative | Hé | Sé | Está |
| | Haya | Sea | Esté |
| | Hayamos | Seamos | Estemos |
| | Hayed | Sed | Estad |
| | Hayan | Sean | Estén |
+—————————————————————————————————+

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN "SER" AND "ESTAR" (for easy reference).

Ser is used—
i. To form the Passive Voice.
ii. To denote an inherent quality.

Estar is used—
i. To denote state in locality, viz., "to be" in a place.
ii. To denote condition (as opposed to inherent quality).

SUPPLEMENTARY RULES.

Use Ser—
i. Before a noun (even if an adjective or an article intervenes).
ii. When "to be" is used impersonally.
iii. When "to be" denotes possession.
iv. Before pobre, rico, felis, and infeliz.

=APPENDIX VI=

PRINCIPAL VERBS, THE LAST ROOT VOWEL OF WHICH CHANGES INTO A DIPHTHONG
WHEN THE STRESS OF THE VOICE FALLS ON IT, AS—-

=Pensar= (to think).

Pres. Ind., Pienso, piensas, piensa,—,—, piensan. Pres. Subj., Piense, pienses, piense,—,—, piensen. Imperative, Piensa, piense,—,—, piensen.

=Entender= (to understand).

Pres. Ind., Entiendo, entiendes, entiende,—,—, entienden. Pres. Subj., Entienda, entiendas, entienda,—,—, entiendan. Imperative, Entiende, entienda,—,—, entiendan.

=Sentir= (to feel).

Pres. Ind., Siento, sientes, siente,—,—, sienten. Pres. Subj., Sienta, sientas, sienta, sintamos,[217] sintáis,[217]
sientan. Imperative, Siente, sienta, sintamos,[217]—, sientan.

=Acordar= (to agree).

Pres. Ind., Acuerdo, acuerdas, acuerda,—,—, acuerdan. Pres. Subj., Acuerde, acuerdes, acuerde,—,—, acuerden. Imperative, Acuerda, acuerde,—,—, acuerden.

=Mover= (to move).

Pres. Ind., Muevo, mueves, mueve,—,—, mueven. Pres. Subj., Mueva, muevas, mueva,—,—, muevan. Imperative, Mueve, mueva,—,—, muevan.

=Dormir= (to sleep).[216]

Pres. Ind., Duermo, duermes, duerme,—,—, duermen. Pres. Subj., Duerma, duermas, duerma, durmamos,[217] durmáis,[217]
duerman. Imperative, Duerme, duerma, durmamos,[217]—, duerman.

[Footnote 216: Morir (to die) is the only verb conjugated like Dormir; but past part. Muerto.]

[Footnote 217: Notice the additional irregularities.]

Principal Verbs conjugated like "Pensar"—

Acertar (to hit the mark)
Acrecentar (to increase)
Alentar (to encourage)
Apretar (to squeeze)
Arrendar (to lease, to hire)
Asentarse (to sit down)
Aterrar (to pull down)
Atravesar (to cross)

Calentar (to warm)
Cegar (to blind)
Cerrar (to shut, to close)
Comendar (to commend)
Comenzar (to begin)
Confesar (to confess)

Desmembrar (to dismember)
Despertar (to awake)

Empedrar (to pave)
Empezar (to begin)
Encerrar (to shut in)
Enmendar (to correct)

Gobernar (to govern)

Manifestar (to manifest)
Mentar (to mention)

Negar (to deny)

Plegar (to fold)

Quebrar (to break)

Recomendar (to recommend)
Reventar (to burst)

Temblar (to tremble)
Tentar (to tempt, to attempt)
Tropezar (to stumble)

Principal Verbs conjugated like "Entender"—

Ascender (to go up)
Atender (to attend)

Condescender (to condescend)
Contender (to contend)

Defender (to defend)
Descender (to descend)

Encender (to light)
Extender (to extend)

Perder (to lose)

Tender (to stretch)

Verter (to shed, to spill)

Principal Verbs conjugated like "Sentir"—

Adherir[218] (to adhere)
Adquirir[218] (to acquire)
Advertir[218] (to notice, to warn)
Arrepentirse (to repent)
Asentir (to assent)

Consentir (to consent)

Erguir (to erect, to raise)

Hervir (to boil)

Mentir (to lie)

[Footnote 218: And all in erir, irir, ertir.]

Principal Verbs conjugated like "Acordar"—

Acostarse (to go to bed)
Almorzar (to breakfast)
Apostar (to bet)
Aprobar (to approve)
Avergonzarse (to be ashamed)

Colgar (to hang)
Consolar (to comfort)
Contar (to relate)
Costar (to cost)

Encontrar (to meet)

Forzar (to force)

Hollar (to tread)

Mostrar (to show)

Poblar (to people)
Probar (to prove)

Recordar (to remind, to remember)
Renovar (to renew)
Rodar (to roll)
Rogar (to pray)

Soldar (to solder)
Soltar (to loosen)
Sonar (to sound)
Soñar (to dream)

Tostar (to toast)
Trocar (to exchange, to barter)

Volar (to fly)

Principal Verbs conjugated like "Mover"—

Absolver (_And all in olver) (to absolve)

Cocer (to bake, to cook)

Demoler (to demolish)
Doler (to ache)

Moler (to grind)
Morder (to bite)

Oler (to smell)[219]

[Footnote 219: Huelo, etc., (because no words begin with ue).]

Promover (to promote)

Soler (to be accustomed)

Torcer (to twist)

LIST OF PRINCIPAL VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE "PEDIR"—

Ceñir (And all in eñir) (to gird)
Competir (to compete)
Concebir (to conceive)
Corregir (to correct)

Derretir (to melt)

Elegir (to elect, to select)
Embestir (to run down, to assail)

Freir (to fry)

Gemir (to moan)

Impedir (to prevent)

Medir (to measure)

Regir (to rule, to govern)
Reir (to laugh)
Repetir (to repeat)

Seguir (to follow)
Servir (to serve)

Vestir (to dress, to clothe)

END

==================================================
Transcriber's note: The edition of this book that was used to produce the document is as follows:
==================================================

PITMAN'S COMMERCIAL SPANISH GRAMMAR

BY

C. A. TOLEDANO

LATE LECTURER IN THE VICTORIA UNIVERSITY, MANCHESTER; EXTERNAL EXAMINER,
UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM; H.M. ASSISTANT INSPECTOR FOR SPANISH; SPANISH
MASTER AT THE MANCHESTER MUNICIPAL SCHOOL OF COMMERCE, MANCHESTER
ATHENAEUM, ETC.

SECOND EDITION REVISED AND ENLARGED

LONDON

SIR ISAAC PITMAN & SONS, LTD., 1 AMEN CORNER, E. C. BATH, NEW YORK AND
MELBOURNE UNIFORM WITH THIS VOLUME

2s 6d net

=PITMAN'S COMMERCIAL FRENCH GRAMMAR=. By F.W.M DRAPER, M A. (Cantab.), Licencié ès Lettres.

=ITALIAN=. By LUIGI RICCI, AND =GERMAN=. By JETHRO BITHELL

=KEY TO COMMERCIAL SPANISH GRAMMAR=

In crown 8vo, cloth, 66 pp, 2s. net.

For Complete List of Pitman's Language Text-books, see Catalogue contained at the end of this book.

PRINTED BY SIR ISAAC PITMAN & SONS, LTD, LONDON, BATH, NEW YORK AND
MELBOURNE

A MI SEÑOR PADRE,

—LO QUE PUEDO Reprinted, 1917

*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK PITMAN'S COMMERCIAL SPANISH GRAMMAR (2ND ED.) ***

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Table of Contents

COMMERCIAL SPANISH GRAMMAR

ALPHABET.

- PRONUNCIATION OF VOWELS.

- DIPHTHONGS AND TRIPHTHONGS.

- CONSONANTS.

- RULES ON PRONUNCIATION.

- SIGNS.

- DIVISION OF WORDS INTO SYLLABLES.

LESSON I.

REGULAR VERBS.

VOCABULARY.

- EXERCISE 1 (1).

- EXERCISE 2 (2).

- VOCABULARY.

- EXERCISE 1 (3).

- EXERCISE 2 (4).

- EXAMPLES—

- VOCABULARY.

- EXERCISE 1 (5).

- EXERCISE 2 (6).

- VOCABULARY.

- EXERCISE 1 (7).

- EXERCISE 2 (8).

- =COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES=.

- EXAMPLES—

- VOCABULARY.

- EXERCISE 1 (9).

EXERCISE 2 (10).

- VOCABULARY.

- EXERCISE 1 (11).

- EXERCISE 2 (12).

- VOCABULARY.

- EXERCISE 1 (13).

- EXERCISE 2 (14).

- EXAMPLES—

- VOCABULARY.

- EXERCISE 1 (15).

- EXERCISE 2 (16).

- EXCEPTIONS—

- VOCABULARY.

- EXERCISE 1 (17).

- EXERCISE 2 (18).

- EXAMPLES—

- VOCABULARY.

- EXERCISE 1 (19).

- EXERCISE 2 (20).

- EXAMPLES—

- EXAMPLES—

- VOCABULARY.

- EXERCISE 1 (21).

- EXERCISE 2 (22).

- VOCABULARY.

- EXERCISE 1 (23).

- EXERCISE 2 (24).

- EXAMPLES—

- EXCEPTION—

- VOCABULARY.

- EXERCISE 1 (25).

- EXERCISE 2 (26).

- EXAMPLES—

- VOCABULARY.

- EXERCISE 1 (27).

- EXERCISE 2 (28).

- VOCABULARY.

- EXERCISE 1 (29).

- EXERCISE 2 (30).

- VOCABULARY.

- EXERCISE 1 (31).

- EXERCISE 2 (32).

- SUPPLEMENTARY RULES.

- VOCABULARY.

- EXERCISE 1 (33).

- EXERCISE 2 (34).

- VOCABULARY.

- EXERCISE 1 (35).

- EXERCISE 2 (36).

- VOCABULARY.

- EXERCISE 1 (37).

- EXERCISE 2 (38).

- EXAMPLES—

- VOCABULARY.

- EXERCISE 1 (39).

- EXERCISE 2 (40).

- EXAMPLES—

- VOCABULARY.

- EXERCISE 1 (41).

- EXERCISE 2 (42).

- VOCABULARY.

- EXERCISE 1 (43).

- EXERCISE 2 (44).

- VOCABULARY.

- EXERCISE 1 (45).

- EXERCISE 2 (46).

- EXCEPTIONS—

- VOCABULARY.

- EXERCISE 1 (47).

- EXERCISE 2 (48).

- VOCABULARY.

EXERCISE 1 (49).

- EXERCISE 2 (50).

- VOCABULARY.

EXERCISE 1 (51).

- EXERCISE 2 (52).

- VOCABULARY.

- EXERCISE 1 (53).

- EXERCISE 2 (54).

- VOCABULARY.

- EXERCISE 1 (55).

- EXERCISE 2 (56).

- VOCABULARY.

- EXERCISE 1. (57)

- EXERCISE 2 (58).

- VOCABULARY.

- EXERCISE 1 (59).

- EXERCISE 2 (60).

PART II

VOCABULARY.

EXERCISE 1 (61).

EXERCISE 2 (62).

- EXERCISE 1 (63).

- EXERCISE 2 (64).

- VOCABULARY.

- EXERCISE 1 (65).

- EXERCISE 2 (66).

- EXCEPTION—

- VOCABULARY.

- EXERCISE 1 (67).

- EXERCISE 2 (68).

- VOCABULARY.

- EXERCISE 1 (69).

- EXERCISE 2 (70).

- VOCABULARY.

- EXERCISE 1 (71).

- EXERCISE 2 (72).

- VOCABULARY.

- EXERCISE 1 (73)

- EXERCISE 2 (74).

- VOCABULARY.

- EXERCISE 1 (75).

- EXERCISE 2 (76).

- VOCABULARY.

- EXERCISE 1 (77).

- EXERCISE 2 (78).

- VOCABULARY.

- EXERCISE 1 (79).

- EXERCISE 2 (80).

- =EXAMPLE—=

- VOCABULARY.

- EXERCISE 1 (81).

- EXERCISE 2 (82).

- VOCABULARY.

- EXERCISE 1 (83).

- EXERCISE 2 (84).

- VOCABULARY.

- EXERCISE 1 (85).

- EXERCISE 2 (86).

- VOCABULARY.

- EXERCISE 1 (87).

- EXERCISE 2 (88).

- VOCABULARY.

- EXERCISE 1 (89).

- EXERCISE 2 (90).

- VOCABULARY.

- EXERCISE 1 (91).

- EXERCISE 2 (92).

- VOCABULARY.

- EXERCISE 1 (93).

- EXERCISE 2 (94).

VOCABULARY.

- =B=
- =C=
- =CH=
- =D=
- =E=
- =F=
- =G=
- =H=
- =I=
- =J=
- =L=
- =LL=
- =M=
- =N=
- =O=
- =P=
- =Q=
- =R=
- =S=
- =T=
- =U=
- =V=
- =Y=
- =Z=

II. ENGLISH-SPANISH.

- =A=
- =B=
- =C=
- =D=
- =E=
- =F=
- =G=
- =H=
- =I=
- =J=
- =K=
- =L=
- =M=
- =N=
- =O=
- =P=
- =Q=
- =R=
- =S=
- =T=
- =U=
- =V=
- =W=
- =Y=
- =Z=

APPENDIX I

APPENDIX II

- GENERAL RULE—

APPENDIX III

APPENDIX IV

APPENDIX V

- CONJUGATION OF THE REGULAR AND AUXILIARY VERBS

=APPENDIX VI=

- LIST OF PRINCIPAL VERBS CONJUGATED LIKE "PEDIR"—

- END

- =KEY TO COMMERCIAL SPANISH GRAMMAR=

- THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE