The Project Gutenberg eBook of Diego Collado's Grammar of the Japanese Language

This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.

Title: Diego Collado's Grammar of the Japanese Language

Author: Diego Collado

Translator: Richard L. Spear

Release date: April 21, 2007 [eBook #21197]

Language: English

Credits: Produced by David Starner, Keith Edkins and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DIEGO COLLADO'S GRAMMAR OF THE JAPANESE LANGUAGE ***

Transcriber's note:

A few typographical errors have been corrected. They appear in the text like this, and the explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked passage.

The reproduction of the Latin original Ars Grammaticae Iaponicae Linguae has been extracted as a separate Project Gutenberg text No. 17713.

Page numbers in the left margin [99] are those of Spear's edition and are referenced in the Table of Contents and Index. Those in the right margin (99 relate to the Latin original and are referenced in the Introduction and Footnotes.

DIEGO COLLADO'S
GRAMMAR OF THE
JAPANESE
LANGUAGE

Edited and Translated
by
Richard L. Spear

International Studies, East Asian Series
Research Publication, Number Nine

Center for East Asian Studies.
The University of Kansas.

Dedicated
TO
The Memory of
Joseph K. Yamagiwa

Table of Contents

Preface

I Introduction 1

The Grammatical Framework 3

The Phonological System 6

The Morphological System 8

The Structure of Collado's and Rodriguez' Descriptions

Contrasted 11

Bibliography 26

Editorial Conventions 28

II Ars Grammaticae Iaponicae Linguae

III A Grammar of the Japanese Language 105

Prologue to the Reader 107

The noun—Its Declension and its Gender 111

Pronouns 118

First Person Pronouns—Ego, etc. 118

Second Person Pronouns—Tu, tui, tibi, etc. 119

Third Person Pronouns—Ille, illa, illud. 120

Relative Pronouns 122

The Formation of the Verb and its Conjugation 123

The Preterit, Perfect, Imperfect, and Pluperfect 124

The Future of the First Conjugation 125

The Imperative of the First Conjugation 125

The Optative of the First Conjugation 126

The Subjunctive of the First Affirmative Conjugation 127

The Infinitive 129

The First Negative Conjugation 131

The Second Affirmative Conjugation 134

The Second Negative Conjugation 135

The Third Affirmative Conjugation 135

The Third Negative Conjugation 136

The Conjugation of the Negative Substantive Verb 137

The Conditional Particles 139

The Potential Verb 140

The Conjugation of Irregular Verbs 141

The Aforementioned Verbs—Their Formation and Diversity 143

Certain Verbs Which of Themselves Indicate Honor 147

Cautionary Remarks on the Conjugations of the Verb 148

The Adverbs: First Section 156

Adverbs of Place 156

Adverbs of Interrogation and Response 159

Adverbs of Time 159

Adverbs of Negation 160

Adverbs of Affirmation 160

Comparative Adverbs 161

Superlative Adverbs 162

Adverbs of Intensity and Exaggeration 162

Accumulative Adverbs 162

Adverbs that Conclude and Claim Attention 163

The Case Prepositions 164

Conjugation and Separation 166

Interjections 167

The Syntax and the Cases that are Governed by the Verbs 168

Japanese Arithmetic and Numerical Matters Concerning Which

Much Painful Labor Is Required 174

Some Rules on the Conjugation of the Verb in the Written

Language 182

IV Works Consulted 185

V Index to Grammatical Categories 187

VI Index to Grammatical Elements 189

Preface

The purpose of this translation of Collado's Ars Grammaticae Iaponicae Linguae of 1632 is to make more readily available to the scholarly community an annotated version of this significant document in the history of both Japanese language study and grammatical description in general.

Collado's work, derived in all its significant features from the Arte da lingoa de Iapam completed in 1608 by João Rodriguez, is in a strict, scholarly sense less valuable than its precursor. However, if used with the Arte as a simplified restatement of the basic structure of the language, Collado's Grammar offers to the student of the Japanese language an invaluable ancillary tool for the study of the colloquial language of the early 17th Century.

While less extensive and less carefully edited than the Arte, Collado's Grammar has much to recommend it as a document in the history of grammatical description. It is an orthodox description attempting to fit simple Japanese sentences into the framework established for Latin by the great Spanish humanist Antonio Lebrija. Thus, as an application of pre-Cartecian grammatical theory to the structure of a non-Indo-European language, the Ars Grammaticae is an important document worthy of careful examination by those wishing insight into the origins of what three centuries later was to become the purview of descriptive linguistics.

The present translation was begun with the able assistance of Ms. Roberta Galli whose contribution to my understanding of the Latin text is most gratefully acknowledged. For his continued encouragement in this undertaking I am grateful to Professor Roy Andrew Miller. Thanks are also due to the Graduate School of the University of Kansas for its support in the preparation of the manuscript and to Ms. Sue Schumock whose capable typing turned a scribbled, multi-lingual draft into a legible manuscript. The imperfections are my own.

R.L.S.

Lawrence, Kansas

May, 1975

Introduction

In 1632, as the Christian Century in Japan was drawing swiftly to a close, three works pertaining to the Japanese language were being published at Rome by the Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith. These works were by the Spanish Dominican Father, Diego Collado (d. 1638), who had spent the years from 1619 to 1622 in Japan. Their publication clearly reflects the vitality of the missionary spirit in that age as well as the important place reserved for language study in the propagation of the faith.

The first two works, whose manuscripts had been prepared in Madrid the year before, were a grammar and a dictionary of Japanese. The third, prepared in 1631, while the larger works were being seen through the press, was a guide to the taking of confession written in both Latin and Japanese.[1] The grammar, drafted in Spanish, was published in Latin in 1632 under the title Ars Grammaticae Iaponicae Linguae. It is this work that is translated here. The dictionary, only at the last moment supplied with Latin glosses to supplement those in Spanish, was published in the same year with the title Dictionarium sive Thesauri Linguae Iaponicae Compendium.[2] Taken together these three works by Collado constitute the final extant efforts of those who studied the Japanese language first hand during the Christian Century.[3]

Two other grammatical works must be mentioned here as central to the proper assessment of Collado's Grammar. They are both by the great Jesuit scholar, Father João Rodnguez (1561-1634);[4] the Arte da Lingoa de Iapam (Nagasaki, 1604-8, hereafter the Arte), and the Arte Breve da Lingoa Iapoa (Macao, 1620, hereafter Arte Breve). The first is by any standards the greatest grammatical study of Japanese made during the Christian Century. It is further, as we shall see, the primary source for Collado's Grammar. The Arte Breve, on the other hand, is not directly related to Collado's work. Indeed it is clear that Rodriguez' 1620 Macao publication was unknown to Collado. Nevertheless, since the Arte Breve is an abbreviated version of the Arte with a purpose similar to the Ars Grammaticae, a comparison of these two books with respect to the way they systematize the material from the Arte is included in this introduction to contribute some insight into the treatment of the Japanese language at the beginning of the Tokugawa Period.

In presenting this translation two potential audiences are envisioned. The first, and more restricted, group is that having an interest in the history of the Japanese language. It is hoped that an English version of this work will make more readily available this significant material pertaining to the Japanese language as spoken in the early modern period. I use the word significant here to avoid granting excessive value to a work which derives such a large portion of its material and insight from Rodriguez' Arte.

The second, and wider group for whom this translation is intended is that which has a need for an edited edition of an important document in the history of grammatical description. In this area of scholarship Collado's work is of more than moderate significance. It was accepted for publication by the prestigious Propaganda Press; and, even if those more familiar with Japanese than the editorial board of that Press might have had serious reservations concerning the linguistic accuracy of the text, it is reasonable to assume that the Press judged it to be a good example of grammatical description. It thus represents a grammar of a non-European language which suited the requirements of the day for publication at Rome.[5]

In order to permit this translation of the Ars Grammaticae to be of use in both these areas of scholarship I have made an effort to reduce to a minimum those places where a knowledge of either Japanese or Latin is required for the comprehension of the translation. It is sincerely hoped that the result is not an effort that is satisfying to neither, and thus to no one.

Because of the derivative nature of the text, this translation has put aside a number of important philological problems as better dealt with within the context of Rodriguez' grammars. This decision has its most obvious consequences in the section on the arithmetic, where innumerable data require exposition. However, since a basic purpose of this translation is within the context of the history of descriptive grammar, these tantalizing side roads have been left unexplored. It is, nevertheless, hoped that this translation will serve as a convenient tool for those wishing to make a more detailed investigation into the philological questions raised by the text. But I must caution those who would undertake such an inquiry that they had best begin with a careful study of the works of Father Rodriguez.

With its limitations acknowledged, the Ars Grammaticae Iaponicae Linguae remains a document worthy of our interest, and I offer this translation in order that Collado's work may more easily find its proper place in the history of descriptive grammar.

The Grammatical Framework

Collado perceived his task to be the presentation of a grammar of Japanese which would have sufficient scope to equip those dedicated to the propagation of the faith with a knowledge of the proper spoken language of his time. While he concludes his grammar with a brief, and rather presumptuous, statement concerning the written language, his purpose is clearly to train his students in the fundamentals of colloquial speech. His sensitivity to this point is demonstrated by his carefully transforming those examples presented by Rodriguez in the written language in the Arte into correct colloquial expressions in his own grammar.

The description is, of course, prescriptive. But given its age and its purpose this ought not to be construed in the contemporary, pejorative sense. Collado, as Rodriguez and indeed all the grammarians of the period, felt obligated to train their students in those patterns of speech which were appropriate to the most polite elements of society. Particularly as they addressed themselves to missionaries, they wished to warn them away from such illiteracies as might undermine their capacities to propagate the faith.

The description further reflects the traditional process conceptualization of language. This is particularly obvious in the treatment of the verb. Thus:

Praesens subiunctiui fit ex praesenti indicatiui mutato u in quo finitur in eba.... (The present subjunctive is formed from the present indicative by changing the u in which it ends to eba....) [p. 23].

In general each of the verbal forms is conceived to be the result of a specified alteration of a basic form. Likewise the nouns are treated within the framework of the declension of cases.

The treatment of Japanese forms is based upon a semantic framework within which the formal characteristics of the language are organized. For example, given the construction aguru coto aró (p. 31) and its gloss 'Erit hoc quod ist offere: idest offeret (It will be that he is to offer, or he will offer),' it is clear that the aguru coto is classified as an infinitive because of its semantic equivalence to offere. The same is true of the latter supine. If the form in Latin is closely associated with such constructions as 'easy to,' or 'difficult to,' the semantically similar form which appears as the element iomi in iominicui 'difficult to read,' must be classed as the latter supine. Rodriguez in his Arte Breve of 1620—unknown to Collado—makes an attempt to classify the structural units of Japanese along more formal lines; but in Collado's treatment the semantic, and for him logical and true, classes established by the formal structure of Latin constitute the theoretical framework through which the Japanese language is to be described.

Collado makes reference to two specific sources of influence upon his grammar. The first is included in the title to the first section of the grammar, Antonius Nebrissensis. It is to this great Spanish humanist, better known as Antonio Lebrija (1444-1522), that Collado turns for the model of his description.

An examination of Lebrija's grammar, the Introductiones Latinae (Salamanca, 1481), shows that from the basic outline of his presentation, to the organization of subsections and the selection of terminology, there is little departure by Collado from his predecessor.

Even in such stylistic devices as introducing the interrogatives by giving the form, following it with "to which one responds," and then listing a number of characteristic answers; Collado is faithful to the Introductiones.

But it is from his Jesuit colleague, Father João Rodriguez, that Collado receives his most significant influence. There is no section of his grammar that does not reflect Rodriguez' interpretation of the raw linguistic data of Japanese. On the basis of the innumerable examples taken from Rodriguez—most of the substantive sentences are directly quoted from the Arte—as well as the parallel listing of forms and identical descriptions of certain grammatical phenomena, it is clear that the writing of the Ars Grammaticae Iaponicae Linguae consisted to no small degree of abridging the exhaustive material contained in Rodriguez' grammar and arranging it within the framework of Lebrija's Introductiones.

To say that Collado followed Lebrija in the general structure of his description is not to imply that he fell heir to all of his precursor's virtues. The Salamanca grammar of 1481 is a masterpiece of orderly presentation. Printed in lettera formata with carefully indented subdivisions, it offers the student a clear display of the conjugational system as well as long columns of Latin examples of a given grammatical structure, accompanied on the right side of the page with Spanish equivalents. Collado makes little effort at copying this orderly display. There are in his presentation no paradigms, but instead only loosely connected sentences that talk the student through the various forms of the conjugation; and there is no orderly array of examples. Add to this the innumerable factual and typographical errors, and one is left with a presentation that lacks most of the basic scholarly virtues of its precursor.

A similar criticism may be leveled against the work from the point of view of Rodriguez' influence. Without matching the Introductiones in orderliness, the Arte more than compensates for its casual format by containing a mass of exhaustively collected and scrupulously presented linguistic data.[6] There was available no better source than the Arte from which Collado might have culled his examples of Japanese.

One doubt that remains in assessing Collado's use of Rodriguez' material is that perhaps his presentation of the most readily understandable material in the Arte is not so much an effort on his part to simplify the learning of Japanese for his students, as it is a reflection of his lack of adequate familiarity with the language he was teaching.

The Phonological System

A study of the phonological data reveals the Ars Grammaticae Iaponicae Linguae to be of minimal historical value. Any student of the phonology of early modern Japanese should turn to the far more reliable work of Father Rodriguez. Nevertheless, certain aspects of Collado's transcription require our attention.

The most obvious innovation in the representation of the language is Collado's transcription with an i of the palatal consonant which all his contemporaries record with a y. Thus in the text we find iomi and coie (terms for native words and Chinese borrowings) where Rodriguez writes yomi and coye. This change was affected while the text was being translated from the Spanish manuscript which uses y; and Collado himself must have felt the innovation to be of dubious value since he retained y for the spellings in the Dictionarium.[7]

Collado's handling of the nasal sounds is too inconsistent to be a reliable source for phonological data. Given his rather awkward specification that nasalization is predictable before what we must assume he means to be the voiced stops and affricates,[8] his grammar presents an uncomfortably irregular pattern in the transcription of the phenomena. Thus, on page 39 we find vo mõdori aró ca? as well as modori aró ca?. Again, what he presents as the ending zũba in his description of the formation of the negative conditional (p. 34) appears in tovazunba in its only occurrence in a sample sentence (p. 62). To further confound the issue such forms as tovazunba and qinpen occur in contrast to sambiacu, varambe, and varãbe.

In Chart 1 the traditional pattern of the gojūonzu (chart of 50 sounds) is followed as a convenient framework in which to display the transcriptional system employed by Collado.

Chart 1

COLLADO'S TRANSCRIPTION SYSTEM

The Simple Series

/#/

/k/

/g/

/s/

/z/

/t/

/d/

/n/

/φ/

/b/

/p/

/m/

/y/

/r/

/w/

/a/

a

ca

ga

sa

za

ta

da

na

fa

ba

pa

ma

ia

ra

va

/i/

i

qi

gui

xi

ji

chi

gi

ni

fi

bi

pi

mi

-

ri

-

/u/

u

cu

gu

su

zu

tçu

zzu

nu

fu

bu

pu

mu

iu

ru

-

/e/

[ie]

qe

gue

xe

je

te

de

ne

fe

be

pe

me

ie

re

-

/o/

[vo]

co

go

so

zo

to

do

no

fo

bo

po

mo

io

ro

vo

The Long Series

/au/

[vó]

có

gó

só

zó

tó

dó

nó

fó

bó

(pó)

mó

ió

ró

vó

/uu/

ú

cú

(gú)

(sú)

-

(tçú)

-

-

fú

(bú)

(pú)

-

iú

rú

-

/ou/

[vô]

cô

(gô)

sô

zô

tô

dô

nô

(fô)

(bô)

pô

mô

iô

rô

vô

The Palatal and Labial Series

/ky/

/gy/

/sy/

/zy/

/ty/

/dy/

/ny/

/φy/

/by/

/py/

/my/

/ry/

/kw/

/gw/

/a/

(qua)

(guia)

xa

ja

cha

gia

(nha)

fia

bia

pia

(mia)

(ria)

qua

gua

/u/

qui

(guiu)

xu

ju

(chu)

(giu)

(nhu)

(fiu)

-

-

(miu)

(riu)

-

-

/o/

qio

guio

xo

(jo)

cho

gio

(nho)

(fio)

(bio)

-

(mio)

(rio)

-

-

/au/

qió

guió

xó

jó

chó

gió

-

(fió)

(bió)

-

mió

(rió)

quó

guó

/uu/

(qiú)

(guiú)

(xú)

jú

(chú)

giú

nhú

-

-

-

-

(riú)

-

-

/ou/

qiô

(guiô)
gueô

xô

jô

chô

giô
geô

nhô
neô

fiô

(biô)
beô

piô

(miô)

(riô)
reô

-

-

In this chart the phonemic grid is presented in a broad phonetic notation while the underlined entries are in the form used by the text. Dashes indicate sequences which do not occur in the Christian material; while the forms in parentheses are sequences which do not occur in the text but have been reconstructed on the basis of the overall system from sequences attested to elsewhere. The forms ie, vo, vó, and vô have been placed in brackets to indicate that neither /e/, /o/, /oo/, or /au/ occur in the syllable initial position; and, where in the modern language they do, the text regularly spells that with an initial i or v. The forms in eô at the foot of the chart represent sequences that are phonetically identical to the forms above them, but which are transcribed differently to reflect morphological considerations; e.g., the form agueô from the stem ague. The phonetic values of /au/, /uu/, and /ou/ are [ɔ:], [u:], and [o:].

Two aspects of the usage of q should be noticed. First, as in the Arte, c is changed to q before o and u, when the sequence occurs at a morphological juncture; e.g., ioqu 'well,' and iqó 'I shall go.' (This rule does not extend to a in such contexts; cf., iocatta 'was good.') Second, in contrast to the system used by Rodriguez, Collado does not feel compelled to follow q with u in all contexts. Thus what Rodriguez spells as queredomo Collado spells as qeredomo. Finally, the text records one usage of the letter h in the exclamation ha.

The Morphological System

Collado's treatment of the morphology contains one quite obvious difference from those of his predecessors: he isolates the particles of the language as separate elements of the structure. While his effort is more or less carelessly maintained by the type setter, his attempt to establish a division between the semantemes (shi) and the morphemes (ji) of Japanese by establishing formal distance between his verba and particula, reflects his consciousness that the morphological elements in Japanese are of a different order than those in Latin. At times, such as when he describes the preterit subjunctive as agueta raba, his divisions fly in the face of derivational history. But he can claim a reasonable justification for his decision by citing Rodriguez' rule for the formation of this form; "add raba to the preterit of the verb" (Arte, 18v). Perhaps it is a prejudice founded upon familiarity with contemporary romanizations, but I cannot help but consider this attempt to give greater independence to the particles as an improvement in the representation of the morphological system.

In all other significant facets of the morphology Collado follows the principles established by Rodriguez with the one exception that in the over-all systematization of the verbal formation and conjugation he follows the classifications established in Lebrija's Introductiones rather than those which Rodriguez inherited from the Institutiones of Alverez. The most significant difference between the two systems is the use by Lebrija of the term subjunctive in his description of the moods where Rodriguez gives independent status to the conjunctive, conditional, concessive, and potential. As we shall see, after presenting the conjugational system of the verb within the framework of Lebrija, Collado breaks the expected sequence of his description of the verb to interject a section on conditional constructions and another on those of the potential.

In the treatment of the tenses Collado breaks with Rodriguez in not attempting to establish an imperfect for Japanese, but he does follow him in the overall classification of the conjugations. Thus:[9]

1st Conjugation

verbs ending in e, gi, and ji (xi and maraxi)

e.g., ague, uru

2nd Conjugation

verbs ending in i

e.g., iomi, u

3rd Conjugation

verbs ending in ai, oi, and ui

e.g., narai, ó

To the description of this general system Collado adds the treatment of the substantive verbs. This section in many respects is the weakest in his grammar with a portion of his description lost in composing the final text.

Since Collado does not, as Rodriguez, present the conjugations in paradigmatic form, I have extracted from his presentation the most representative forms of the verb ague, uru for each of the categories of the system, and presented them in Chart 2 for reference.

Chart 2

THE CONJUGATIONAL SYSTEM

Affirmative

Negative

INDICATIVE MOOD

Present

aguru

aguenu

Perfect

agueta

aguenanda

Pluperfect

aguete atta

aguenande atta

Future

agueôzu

aguru mai

Future perfect

aguete arǒzu

——

IMPERATIVE MOOD

Present

ague io

aguru na

Future

agueôzu

aguru mai

OPTATIVE MOOD

Present

avare ague io caxi

avare aguru na caxi

Preterit

agueôzu mono vo

aguru mai mono vo

Future

avare ague io caxi

avare aguru na caxi

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

Present

agureba

agueneba

Perfect

agueta reba

aguenanda reba

Pluperfect

aguete atta reba

——

Future

agueô toqi

aguru mai qereba

PERMISSIVE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

Present

agueredomo

aguenedomo

Preterit

agueta redomo

aguenanda redomo

Future

agueôzu redomo

aguru mai qeredomo

INFINITIVE

Present

aguru coto

aguenu coto

Preterit

agueta coto

aguenanda coto

Future

agueô coto

aguru mai coto

GERUND IN DI

Present

aguru [jibun]

aguenu [jibun]

Future

agueô [jibun]

aguru mai [jibun]

GERUND IN DO

——

aguete

agueĩde

GERUND IN DUM

Present

aguru tame

aguenu tame

Future

agueô tame

aguru mai tame

SUPINE IN TUM

——

ague ni

——

SUPINE IN TU

——

ague

——

PARTICIPLE

Present

aguru fito

aguenu fito

Preterit

agueta fito

aguenando fito

Future

agueô fito

aguru mai fito

The forms treated separately are:
THE CONDITIONAL

Present

agueba

aguezũba

Preterit

agueta raba

aguenanda raba

Future

agueô naraba

aguru mai naraba

THE POTENTIAL

Present

aguru ró

aguenu coto mo arózu

Preterit

aguetçu ró

aguenanzzu ró

Future

agueôzu ró

aguru mai coto mo arózu

The Structure of Collado's and Rodriguez' Descriptions Contrasted

In every section of his description, Collado is indebted to the material presented by Rodriguez in his Arte da Lingoa de Iapam. The structure of the Ars Grammaticae, however, follows a much more simplistic design than that of the Arte. As a consequence Collado found it necessary to assemble his data from various sections of Rodriguez' description. In the paragraphs which follow we will briefly sketch the structural relation between these two grammars.

As he clearly states in his title to the main portion of the grammar Collado bases his description on the Introductiones of Antonio Lebriya, and more specifically upon that portion of the great Latin grammar which dealt with the parts of speech. Further, he limits himself to the spoken language rather than attempting, as does Rodriguez, an integrated treatment of both the spoken and written grammars.

Under these influences Collado's grammar takes on the following form:

A Prologue (including the phonology) ... 3-5

The Body of the Grammar (by parts of speech) ... 6-61

A Brief Syntax ... 61-66

A Treatment of the Arithmetic ... 66-74

A Note on the Written Language ... 74-75

In contrast Rodriguez' Arte, prepared under the influence of Alvarez' Institutiones, develops its description over the span of three books which treat both the spoken and written grammar in progressively greater detail. Thus:

The Introduction ... iii-v

Book I

The Declensions ... 1-2v

The Conjugations ... 2v-54

The Parts of Speech (Rudimenta) ... 55-80v

Book II

The Syntax of the Parts of Speech ... 83-168

Styles, Pronunciation, Poetics, etc. ... 168-184

Book III

The Written Language ... 184v-206v

Names, Titles, etc. ... 206v-212v

The Arithmetic ... 212v-239

Given these differing formats[10] it is clear that Collado is unable to cope adequately with the more complex aspects of the grammar, specifically those syntactic constructions to which Rodriguez devotes almost an entire book.

An analysis of Collado's description and a listing of the portions of Rodriguez' grammar from which material was taken yields the following:

Collado

Rodriguez

Phonology (3-5)

left brace

Parts of Speech (55-58)
Book III (173-179v)

Nouns (6-13)

left brace

Declensions (1-2v)
Parts of Speech (59-61)

Adjectives (9-11, 32-33)

left brace

Declensions (2-2v)
Conjugations (47-52)
Parts of Speech (61-67)

Pronouns (13-18)

left brace

Declensions (2v)
Parts of Speech (67-68)

Verbs (18-49)

left brace

Conjugations (6v-54v)
Parts of Speech (69-73)
Syntax (83v-112v)

Adverbs (49-57)

left brace

Parts of Speech (73v-77)
Syntax (113-125)

Prepositions (57-59)

left brace

Parts of Speech (73-73v)
Syntax (140-148v)

Conjunctions (59-60)

left brace

Parts of Speech (76-76v)
Syntax (130-137)

Exclamations (60-61)

left brace

Parts of Speech (76-76v)
Syntax (125-130)

Syntax (61-66)

Book II (83-168)

Arithmetic (66-75)

Book III (212v-239)

Written Language (74-75)

Book III (184v-206v)

Two aspects of Japanese were not able to be described with any degree of satisfaction by Collado; the adjectives (adjectiva) and the prepositions (praepositio). His difficulties, attributable to the basic structural difference between Latin and Japanese, were compounded by the fact that Rodriguez too was unable to find a satisfactory solution to their description.

With respect to the adjectives, Collado attempts to deal with their functions in the manner appropriate to Latin, that is as a sub-class of nouns (pp. 9-11). He also recognizes their formal similarity to the verb and treats them briefly as a sub-class of the substantive verb (pp. 32-33), but his heavy reliance upon the semantic categories of Latin does not permit him to follow Rodriguez who is able more clearly to recognize their formal as well as their functional distinctiveness.

Concerning prepositions, Collado was confronted with an all but insurmountable taxonomic problem. Here too Rodriguez was unable to develop a completely satisfactory descriptive framework. In the Arte the term posposição is used for those particles which function in a manner similar to the Latin prepositions; e.g., tameni, taixite, and tomoni (cf. 73-73v and 140-148v); the term artigo is used for those particles having the functions of the inflectional endings of Latin; e.g., ga, ye, and ni (cf. 1-2, 78, and 137-140); and the general term particula is used to cover the broad spectrum of particles that include adverbs, conjunctions, and exclamations, as well as those otherwise unaccounted for elements which end phrases, clauses, and sentences; e.g., no, nite, and yo (cf. 77-78 and 144-154v).

Collado, rather than attempting to refine the system suggested by Rodriguez, follows the Arte in listing as praepositio those elements which translate the Latin prepositions (pp. 57-59) but uses the term particula to cover all the other particles of the language.

This tendency of Collado's to retreat from the challenging problems left unresolved by Rodriguez constitutes the greatest weakness of his description. Given concise grammatical descriptions on the one hand and over-simplified versions of previous works on the other, the Ars Grammaticae Iaponicae Linguae unfortunately falls among the latter.

In his shorter work, the Arte Breve of 1620, Rodriguez retains the same general format, but makes every effort to reduce the description to its barest essentials. Thus:

Book I

A General Note on the Language ... 1-2

An Essay on How to Learn the Language ... 2v-6

The Orthography ... 6-8

Composition of the Syllables ... 8v-9v

The Way to Write and Pronounce the Letters ... 10-12v

The Declension of Nouns ... 13-18

The Conjugation and Formation of Verbs ... 18-52

Book II

The Rudimenta ... 52-59v

The Syntax ... 59v-66v

Book III

The Written Language ... 67-75

The Various Kinds of Names ... 75v-98v

Of particular interest in the context of Collado's grammar is the manner in which Rodriguez displays the verbal system. While the Ars Grammaticae presents the verbal system as a series of alterational rules to be applied to the base forms, the Arte Breve goes even further than the Arte to differentiate the formational rules from the conjugational displays. Rodriguez tries several devices to elucidate his material. For example, Charts A and B below represent very early attempts to use a bordered format for linguistic description.

In order to indicate the differences to be found between the descriptions presented by Rodriguez and Collado, I have extracted the formational rules from the Arte Breve and, setting aside only two short appendices dealing with variant forms, present them here in their entirety.

THE CONJUGATION AND FORMATION OF THE TENSES AND MOODS OF THE VERBS

All the verbs of this language may be reduced (se reduzem) to four affirmative and three negative conjugations. This is because the negative conjugation of the adjectival verb, which we discussed before,[11] agrees with the second of the three conjugations; and the conjugation of the substantive verb Sǒrai, Sǒrǒ, or soro, which is an abbreviated form of Samburai, samburǒ[12] both in the affirmative and the negative is reduced to the third conjugation. At this point we will treat the three affirmative and three negative ordinary conjugations of the regular personal verbs.[13] Following this, and on account of its particular usage and formation, we will discuss the conjugation of the adjectival verb.

The verbs of this language do not change (naõ fẽ variedade) to show person and number as do those of Latin; rather, one form (voz) is used for all persons, singular and plural. Number and person are understood according to the subject (Naminativo [sic]), or pronoun, which is joined to the verb. The moods of the verb, which in this language have distinct forms for the tenses, are indicative, imperative, conjunctive, conditional, and preterit participle. The remaining moods are made up of these forms joined to certain particles. Each mood has but three tenses which have distinct forms; these are preterit, present, and future. These forms are signified by the Japanese terms (vocabulos) Quaco, ghenzai, mirai. The preterit imperfect and pluperfect are made up of the present, preterit, and preterit participle together with the substantive verb, as will be seen below in the conjugations.

Concerning the formation of the tenses and moods of the verbs in general, one is reminded that to understand the actual root (raiz) and the natural formation of all the tenses and moods, both affirmative and negative, it is extremely important to take notice of the usage of the Goyn,[14] which are the five vowels (cinco letras vogaes) in the syllables which are below each aforementioned formation; and that it is also important to understand Canadzucai,[15] which is the way to write with Firagana as well as the way one joins together syllables, or letters, to form other words (palauras), while noticing which syllable is changed by which, what constitutes long, short, or diphthongal syllables, which combinations cause contraction (sincope), which cause augmentation (incremento) of the verb, whether one makes a syllable liquid (liquescit)[16] or not, and how the tenses of the moods are written with the same Cana.[17] The term Goyn, not only indicates the syllables, or Cana, which are transformed to others, such as Fa, Fe, Fi, Fo, Fu, which are changed to the closely related sounds Ba, Be, Bi, Bo, Bu and Pa, Pe, Pi, Po, Pu; but it also indicates another kind of change from one sound to another in the same order (ordem), as happens among the syllables Fa, Fe, Fi, Fo, Fu. Ba, Be, Bi, Bo, Bu. Ma, Me, Mi, Mo, Mu, etc. where often by rule (regna) Ma is changed to Mi; or to the contrary Bu to Ba and Bi to Ba, and likewise for others. The greater part of the formation of the tenses of each mood is confined to such changes, as is clearly seen in the way one writes the tense forms with Cana. It is to this that another change belongs. That which exists among those syllables having a certain relationship and rapport between them, as Ma, Fa, Ba, Pa; Me, Fe, Be, Pe; Mi, Fi, Bi, Pi; Mo, Fo, Bo, Po; Mu, Fu, Bu, Pu; with Mu and V. Thus, what is written Vma in Cana is written Muma, and Mume written for Vme in order to conform more closely to its pronunciation.[18] Also Mu is written for Bu[19] so that all the harmony (armonia) in the formations of this language are contained in the rules for Goyn and Canadzucai. Those who are informed see, as native speakers, how the tenses are formed for any mood, and which letter, or syllable, must be changed to another to affect a formation. Concerning this matter there is a booklet[20] which teaches Canadzucai, and the general rules on the subject. Teachers should have this booklet to teach more easily and advantageously those students who are learning Cana. Lacking a knowledge of Goyn and Canadzucai, some of the rules which until now have been used in the formation of verbs (some of which I have let remain as they were), are not the original and natural rules as are the Goyn.[21] They are rather devices, some forming affirmative tenses and moods from negative forms and others forming them from yet other more remote sources, which appear to correspond to formational rules, but for which the proper rules are not known. The fact is that the affirmative as well as negative are formed from the affirmative, beginning with the root, as will be seen below.

Speaking in general of the formation of the verb, the forms of the indicative and imperative moods of all three conjugations are formed from the root of the verb. The rest of the tenses in the other affirmative moods are formed from either the indicative or imperative forms. In the same way, the negative indicative present is formed from the root of the verb and the other tenses of the indicative are formed from the present form. The other negative moods are formed from the indicative forms.

Formation of the Tenses for the Indicative and Imperative Moods of the Verbs of the First Affirmative Conjugation

The final syllables of the roots of the first affirmative conjugation, by which the verbs conjugated here are known, and from which the tenses of the indicative will be formed, end in E, with the exception of the verb "to do," Xi, or Ii, with its compounds and certain other verbs which end in I. The verbs which belong to the first conjugation, are as follows [in Charts A & B].

The verb Xi "to do," with its compounds ending in Xi or Ii, follows the formation of the verbs of the first conjugation. Ii is Xi which has been changed (alterado) to Ii because it follows the letter N. Xi conforms to the rules for the syllables which are changed (se mudam) to others. Thus:

Xi

In the present change Xi to Suru. In the preterit add Ta to the root. In the future change Xi to Xeô. In the imperative change Xi to Xe and add Yo, i, or sai. In the negative add Nu, or zu to Xe.

Suru, xita, xeô, ôzu, ôzuru, xeyo, xenu, or zu.

Faixi

Faisuru, faixita, faixeô, faixeyo, faixenu.

Tayxi[22]

Tassuru, taxxita, taxxeô, taxxeyo, taxxenu.

Gaxxi

Gassuru, gaxxita, gaxxeô, gaxxeyo, gaxxenu.

Zonji

In the present Ii is changed to Zuru. In the preterit Ta is added to the root. In the future Ii is changed to Ieô, etc.

Zonzuru, zonjita, zonjeô, ôzu, ôzuru, zonjeyo, zonjenu.

Caronji

Caronzuru, caronjita,etc.

Vomonji

Vomonzuru, vomonjita.

Sanji

Sanzuru, sanjita.

Goranji

Goranzuru, goranjita.

Soranji

Soranzuru, soranjita.

Ganji

Canzuru, canjita.

Manji

Manzuru, manjita.

Many of these verbs have another, less used, form made by adding Ru to the root; e.g., Abi, abiru; Mochiy, mochiyru; xiy, xiyru. Among these are some that have only this second form and lack the first; e.g., Mi, miru; Ni, niru; Fi, firu; Cagammi, cagammiru; Ki, kiru "to dress," as distinct from Ki, kuru "to come"; and y, yru.

Chart A

[The Formation of First Conjugation Verbs Ending in E]

Syllables

Roots

Formation

Present

Preterit

Future

Imperative

Negative

Te,

Tate,

In the present change Te to Tçuru. The remainder are from the root. See above.

Tatçuru.

Tateta.

Tateô, ôzu, ôzuru.

Tateyo. Tatei, tatesay.[23]

Tatenu, or, zu.

Fate,

Fatçuru.

Fateta.

Fateô, ôzu, ôzuru.

Fateyo, etc.

Fatenu, or, zu.

Ie,

Maje,

Change Ie to Zuru in the present. The remainder are from the root. See above.

Mazuru.

Majeta.

Majeô.

Majeyo, etc.

Majenu, or, zu.

Xe,

Saxe,

In the present change Xe to Suru. The remainder are from the root. See above.

Sasuru.

Saxeta.

Saxeô.

Saxeyo.

Saxenu, or, zu.

Mairaxe,

Mairasuru.

Mairaxeta.

Mairaxeô.

Mairaxeyo, etc.

Mairaxenu, or, zu.

Chart B

Syllables

Roots

Formation

Present

Preterit

Future

Imperative

Negative

Be,

Curabe,

In the present tense of these eight forms, change E to Vru. In the preterit add Ta to the root. In the future ô, ôzu, ôzuru to the root. In the Negative present add Nu, or zu to the root.

Curaburu.

Curabeta.

Curabeô, ôzu, ôzuru.

Curabeyo, ei, sai.

Curabenu, or, Curabezu.

Fe,

Fe,

Furu, or, feru.

Feta.

Feô, ôzu, ôzuru.

Feyo, fei, fesai.

fenu, fezu.

Ghe,

Aghe,

Aghuru.

Agheta.

Agheô,

Agheyo, etc.

Aghenu, etc.

Ke,

Tokoke,

Todokuru.

Todoketa.

Todokeô. etc.

Todokenu, etc.

Me,

Motome,

Motomuru.

Motometa.

Motomeô.

Motomeyo, etc.

Motomenu, etc.

Ne,

Fane,

Fanuru.

Faneta.

Faneô.

Faneyo.

Fanenu.

Re,

Fanare,

Fanaruru.

Fanareta.

Fanareô.

Fanareyo.

Fanarenu.

Ye,

Ataye,

Atayuru.

Atayeta.

Atayeô.

Atayeyo.

Atayenu.

[De,]

De,

In the present change De to Dzuru. The other tenses are formed, as above, from the root.

Dzuru.

Deta.

Deô, ôzu, etc.

Deyo, etc.

Denu.

Ide,

Idzuru.

Ideta.

Ideô, ôzu.

Ideyo.

Idenu.

Mǒde,

Mǒdzuru.

Mǒdeta.

This verb is defective and lacks other forms.

Mede,

Medzuru.

Medeta.

This verb is defective and has no other forms.

Formation of the Optative, Conjunctive, and Conditional Moods, and the Participle

The optative mood does not have forms of its own but compensates for this in part by adding to the imperative certain particles which indicate desire, in part by adding to the future indicative particles which show regret for not doing something, and in part by circumlocutions with the conditional mood and certain particles, as will be seen in the conjugations.

The conjunctive mood has two sorts of proper forms. The first is the common and ordinary form ending in Eba, corresponding to the Latin cum. The other ends in Domo, corresponding to the particle "although (posto que)." The other verbs of this mood do not have their own forms, but are expressed by circumlocutions as we shall see.[24]

The present tense of the first conjunctive is formed from the present indicative by changing the final Ru to Reba; e.g., Motomureba. For the preterit Reba is added to the preterit indicative; e.g., Motometareba. For the future the final Ru of the third form of the future indicative is changed to Reba; e.g., Motomeôzureba. For a second form of the future the syllable Rǒ is added to the indicative preterit perfect; e.g., Motometarǒ. This particle is Ran in the written language; e.g., Motometaran.[25] An utterance (oraçam) does not end in this form, but must be followed by a noun.[26]

The present tense of the second conjunctive is formed by changing the final Ru of the present indicative to Redomo; e.g., Motomuredomo. For the preterit Redomo is added to the indicative preterit perfect; e.g., Motometaredomo. Strictly speaking this form is Motomete aredomo, losing the E of the participle. Furthermore, Motometa, together with the other preterit forms in Ta is from Motometearu which is first elided to Motometaru and then by common usage (pratica) to Motometa. All of which is seen in its Canadzucai. For the future, the final Ru of the future indicative is changed to Redomo; e.g., Motomeôzuredomo.

The conditional mood, for the present tense, is formed by adding the syllable Ba to the root of the verb and Naraba or Ni voiteua to the present tense form; e.g., Motomeba, motomuru naraba, and motomuruni voiteua. For the preterit, Raba, Naraba, or Ni voiteua are added to the indicative preterit; e.g., Motometaraba, which is in reality Motomete araba, motometa naraba, and motometani voiteua. For the future Naraba or Ni voiteua are added to the future forms; e.g., Motomeô naraba and motomeôni voiteua. The present tense forms are also used for the future.

Verbs of the First Conjugation That End in I

There are some irregular verbs ending in I which follow the formational rules of the first conjugation, both affirmative and negative. There are a precise number of them. Those which have been found to date are shown below. They are formed for the present indicative by changing I to Uru, for the preterit by adding Ta to the root of the verb, and for the future by adding long û, ûzu, or ûzuru to the same root. For the present conditional Ba is added to the root, for the preterit Raba is added to the preterit indicative, and for the future Naraba is added to the future indicative. For the present conjunctive the Ru of the present indicative is changed to Reba, for the preterit Reba is added to the same preterit indicative, and for the future the final Ru of the future is changed to Reba. All the other forms are formed as has been stated for the formation of the first conjugation. Thus:[27]

Abi

left brace

Abi, aburu, abita, abiû, ûzu, ûzuru, abiyo, or sai, abiba, taraba.

Cabi, caburu, cabita, cabiû, ûzu, ûzuru, biyo, sai, biba, bitaraba.

Carabi, caraburu, bita, biû, ûzu, ûzuru, biyo, sai, biba, taraba

Sabi, saburu, sabita, sabiû, ûzu, ûzuru, sabiyo, bisai, biba, taraba

Vabi, vaburu, vabita, vabiû, ûzu, ûzuru, yo, sai, biba, bitaraaba.

Obi

left brace

Nobi, buru, bita, biû, ûzu, ûzuru, biyo, bisai, biba, bitaraba.

Corobi, buru, bita, biû, biûzu, ûzuru, biyo, bisai, biba, bitaraba.

Forobi, buru, bita, biû, ûzu, ûzuru, biyo, bisai, biba, bitaraba.

Fitobi, bu, bita, biû, ûzu, ûzuru, biyo, bisai, biba, bitaraba.

Fokorobi, bu, bita, biû, ûzu, ûzuru, biyo, bisai, biba, bitaraba.

Ubi

left brace

Furubi, bu, bita, biû, ûzu, ûzuru, biyo, bisai, biba, bitaraba.

Vochi,

left brace

Chi to Tçuru

right brace

Votçuru, chita, chiû, chiyo, chiba, tçureba.

Cuchi,

Cutçuru, chita, chiû, chiyo, chiba, tçureba.

Fagi,

left brace

Change Gi to Dzu

right brace

Fadzuru, fagita, giû, giyo, giba, gitaraba.

Vogi,

Vodzuru, gita, giû, giyo, giba, gitaraba.

Negi,

Nedzuru, gita, giû, giyo, giba, gitaraba.

Mochiy

right brace

the final Y to Yuru

left brace

Mochiyuru, mochiyta, chiyû, yûzu, ûzuru, iyo, yba, yttaraba.

Xiy,

Xiyuru, xiyta, yû iyo, yba ytaraba.

Mimixiy,

Mimixiyta, mimixiyte, Defective.

Mexiy,

Mexiytaru, mexiyte, Defective.

Y, yru, yta, yû, ûzu, ûzuru, yyo, yba, yreba. To be

Ki, kiru, kita kiû, kiyo, &c. To wear

Ki, kuru, kita, kô, kôzu, kôzuru, koyo or koi. To Come

Coru, coruru, corita, coriû, &c.

Furi, fururu, furita, furiû, &c.

Iki, ikuru, ikita, ikiû, &c.

Ideki, idekuru, idekita, idekiû, &c.

Deki, dekuru, dekita, dekiû, &c.

Voki, vokuru, vokita, vokiû, &c.

Tçuki, tçukuru, tçukita, tçukiû, &c.

Vori, voruru, vorita, voriû, &c.

Vrami, vramuru, vramita, vramiû, &c.

Cagammi, cagammiru, cagammita, cagammiû, &c.

Mi, miru, mita, miû, &c.

Ni, niru, nita, niû, &c.

Sughi, sughuru, sughita, sughiû, &c.

Formation of the Verbs of the Second Conjugation

All the roots of second conjugation verbs end in I. There are eight final syllables for these verbs; i.e., Bi, Chi, Ghi, Ki, Mi, Ni, Ri, Xi. It is by these syllables that the verbs of the second conjugation (except for those mentioned above as being in the first conjugation) are recognized, and from which the tenses are formed.

The roots ending in the syllables Bi, Ghi, Ki, Mi, and Ri change the I to V for the present tense; e.g., Tobi, tobu; Coghi, coghu; Caki, caku; Yomi, yomu; Kiri, kiru.

Those ending in Chi change to Tçu for the present; e.g., Mochi, motçu; Cachi, catçu; Tachi, tatçu.

Those ending in Ni change to Nuru for the present; e.g., Xini, xinuru; Yni, ynuru.[28]

Those ending in Xi change to Su for the present; e.g., Fanaxi, fanasu; Cudaxi, cudasu; Taraxi, tarasu.

For the preterit those ending Obi and Omi change to ôda; e.g., Yomi, yôda; Tobi, tôda; Yobi, yôda; Yorocobi, yorocôda. Tomi becomes tonda.

Those ending in Abi and Ami change to ǒda; e.g., Yerabi, yerǒda; Vogami, vogǒda; Yami, yǒda.

Those ending in Imi change to ûda; e.g., Najimi, najǔda; Nijimi, nijǔda; Ximi, xûda.[29]

Those ending in Umi and Ubi change their endings to Vnda or in some instances ûda. While some have two forms others have only one form which is seen in use, the more general is Vnda; e.g., Musubi, musunda; Susumi, susunda or susûda; Nusumi, nusunda or nusûda; Sumi, sunda or sûda; Cumi, cunda only.

Those ending in Ebi and Emi change to Eôda; e.g., Sakebi, sakeôda; Sonemi, soneôda.

Those ending in Ghi change to Ida; e.g., Auoghi, auoida; Voyoghi, voyoida; Coghi, coida.

Those ending in Ni change to Inda; e.g., Xini, xinda; Yni, ynda.

Those ending in Chi and Ri change to Tta; e.g., Machi, matta; Cachi, catta; Tachi, tatta; Kiri, kitta; Chiri, chitta; Cari, catta.

Those ending in Ki and Xi change to Ita; e.g., Caki, caita; Faki, faita; Nuki, nuita; Todoki, todoita; Sosoki, sosoita; Saxi, saita; Fataxi, fataita; Maxi, maita or maxita; Coxi, coita or oxita. The following add Ta to the root; e.g., Moxi, moxita; Muxi, muxita; Fuxi, fuxita; Mexi, mexita.

The future can be formed in two ways. The first and more common way is to change I to ǒ, ǒzu, or ǒzuru; e.g., Yomi, yomǒ, yomǒzu, yomǒzuru; Yerabi, yerabǒ, etc.; Kiri, kirǒ; Xini, xinǒ; Auoghi, auogǒ.[30] Those ending in Chi change to Tǒ; e.g., Cachi, catǒ, etc.; machi, matǒ. Those ending in Xi change to Sǒ; e.g., Mǒxi, mǒsǒ; Nagaxi, nagasǒ; Mexi, mesǒ; Coxi, cosǒ, etc. The other way, which is easy too, is to change the final V of the present indicative to ǒ; e.g., Yomu, yomǒ; Kiku, kikǒ; Mǒsu, mǒsǒ; Mesu, mesǒ. Those ending in çu change to Tǒ; e.g., Tatçu, tatǒ; Catçu, catǒ. Those ending in Nuru change to Nǒ; e.g., Xinuru, xinǒ; Ynuru, ynǒ. This second rule seems to be more naturally in accord with the rules for the Japanese language.

The imperative changes the final I of the root to E. Those ending in Chi change to Te; e.g., Yome; Kike; Tamochi, tamote; Vchi, ute; Machi, mate.

The present conjunctive is formed by adding Ba to the imperative; e.g., Yomeba; Tateba.[31] For the preterit, Reba is added to the preterit indicative; e.g., Yôdarebe.[32] For the future the final Ru of the future indicative is changed to Reba; e.g., Yomǒzureba. The conjunctive in Domo is formed in the same manner; e.g., Yomedomo, yôdaredomo, yomǒzuredomo.

The conditional is formed from the future indicative by changing the ǒ to Aba; e.g., Yomaba; Tataba.[33] The preterit is formed by adding Raba to the indicative preterit; e.g., Yôdaraba; Tattaraba.[34]

The preterit participle is formed from the preterit by changing the A to E; e.g., Yôde; Kite; Tatte. The present participle, in Te, is formed by adding Te ['hand'] to the root of any verb. This is properly a substantive and thus governs the genitive as do the other substantives. It does not indicate tense; e.g., Yomite; Cakite; Machite, etc.

The negative present can be formed in two ways. The first, and that which accords with the rules for Canadzucai, is formed by changing I of the root to Anu or Azu; e.g., Corobi, corobanu, corobazu; Yomi, yomanu, etc.; Coghi, coghanu; Caki, cacanu;[35] Kiri, kiranu; ini, inanu. Those ending in Chi change to Tanu; e.g., Tachi, tatanu. Those ending in Xi change to Sanu; e.g., Fanasanu. Another formation common to all is made with the future indicative by changing ǒ to Anu or Azu; e.g., Corobǒ, corobanu, corobazu; Yomǒ, yomanu, etc.; Coghǒ, coghanu; Cakǒ, cakanu; Kirǒ, kiranu; Inǒ, inanu; Tatǒ, tatanu; Matǒ, matanu; Fanasǒ, fanasanu. This rule is common to all three conjugations by changing the affirmative future indicative ǒ to Anu and the ô and û to Nu or Zu;[36] e.g., Todomeô, todomenu, todomezu; Saxeô, saxenu, etc.; Tateô, tatenu; Miû, minu; Yomǒ, yomanu; Tatǒ, tatanu; Fanasǒ, fanasanu; Narauǒ, narananu; Vomouǒ, vomouanu; Furuuo, furuuanu. For the second conjugation preterit, those in Nu are changed to Nanda: e.g., Yomananda. For the preterit participle Da is changed to De; e.g., Yomanande. For the second form of the negative participle, the Nu is changed to Ide; e.g., Yomaide, Corobaide, Tataide, Totonouaide. For the future the particle majij[37] or mai is added to the affirmative present indicative; e.g., Yomumajij, yomumai; Matçumajij, matçumai.

Formation of the Third Conjugation and the Roots from Which the Tenses Are Formed

The final syllables of the third conjugation are the diphthongs Ai, Oi, Vi. By these syllables the verbs are known to belong to this conjugation, and from them the tenses are formed. The present indicative is formed by changing Ai to ǒ, Oi to ô, and Vi to û; e.g., Narai, narǒ; Vomoi, vomô; furui, furû. The preterit is formed by adding the syllable Ta to the present; e.g., Narǒta, Vomôta, Furûta. The future is formed by changing the final I of the root to Vǒ, vǒzu, vǒzuru; e.g., Narauǒ, narauǒzu, etc.; Vomouǒ, vomouǒzu, etc.; Furuuǒ, furuuǒzu, etc. The present imperative is formed by changing the final I to Ye; e.g., Naraye, Vomoye, Furuye.

For the present conjunctive Ba or Domo is added to the imperative; e.g., Narayeba, narayedomo; Vomoyeba, vomoyedomo; Furuyeba, furuyedomo. For the preterit Reba or Redamo[38] is added to the indicative preterit; e.g., Narǒtareba, narǒtaredomo; Vomôtareba, vomôtaredomo; Furûtareba, furûtaredomo.

The present conditional is formed by changing ǒ of the future to Aba; e.g., Narauaba, Vomouaba, Furuuaba. The preterit is formed by adding Raba to the indicative preterit; e.g., Narǒtaraba, Vomôtaraba, Furûtaraba.

The negative present is formed by changing the I of the root to Vanu or vazu; e.g., Narai, narauanu, narauazu; Vomoi, vomouanu, etc.; Furui, Furuuana, etc. This form can also be formed from the future by changing the ǒ to Anu or azu; e.g., Narauǒ, narananu, etc. For the preterit the Nu is changed to Nanda; e.g., Narauananda. For the preterit participle the Da is changed to De; e.g., Narauanande. For the second form the Nu of the present is changed to Ide; e.g., Narauaide, Vomouaide, Furuuaide. For the future the particle Majii,[39] maji, or mai is added to the affirmative present indicative; e.g., Narǒmajii, narǒmaji, narǒmai; Vomômajii, ji, or mai; Furûmajii, ji, or mai.

The verb Yy 'to speak' becomes Yû, yûta, yuǒ, yye, yuanu. Yei or yoi 'to become sick' becomes Yô, yôta, youǒ, yoye, yonanu. The substantive verb Saburai, which also belongs to this conjugation, becomes Saburǒ, saburauanu; and Sǒrai becomes Sǒrǒ, soro, sǒraite, sǒraye, sorouanu.

Rodriguez follows these formational rules with a full display of all the forms of the three conjugations. In his display he, like Alvarez before him, recapitulates the appropriate rules for each form. Collado nowhere presents his conjugational system as a paradigm but does, as we shall see, include a full complement of example sentences in his description, something which Rodriguez does not do in the Arte Breve.

Bibliography

In the examination of any portion of the Christian materials certain works are indispensable. Father Johannes Laures, S.J., Kirishitan Bunko (Tokyo, 1957) remains the basic bibliographic source for the study of all sources of the Christian Century, while Hashimoto Shinkichi, Kirishitan kyōgi no kenkyū (Tokyo, 1929) and Doi Tadao, Kirishitan gogaku no kenkyū (Tokyo, 1942) serve as indespensible guides to our understanding of the linguistic aspects of the field. A later contribution to the general bibliography has been made by Fukushima Kunimichi, Kirishitan shiryō to kokugo kenkyū (Tokyo, 1973).

The basic grammatical study of the period, based upon the shōmono materials, is Yuzawa Kōkichirō, Muromachi jidai gengo no kenkyū (Tokyo, 1958). More closely related to the language reflected in the text is his "Amakusabon Heike monogatari no gohō," in Kyōiku ronbunshū (no. 539, Jan. 1929). An English treatment of the grammatical system of the period is to be found in R. L. Spear, "A Grammatical Study of Esopo no Fabulas," an unpublished doctoral thesis (Michigan, 1966). The phonology has been carefully analyzed by Ōtomo Shin'ichi, Muromachi jidai no kokugo onsei no kenkyū (Tokyo, 1963), with a valuable contribution made in English by J. F. Moran, "A Commentary on the Arte Breve da Lingoa Iapao of João Rodriguez, S.J., with Particular Reference to Pronunciation," an unpublished doctoral thesis (Oxford, 1971). This latter work presents an exhaustive examination of the phonological system reflected in the Arte Breve of 1620 within the framework of Berhard Bloch's phonemic theory.

Two lexical works have been used as basic references in this translation. The Vocabulario de Lingoa de Iapam (hereafter the Vocabulario) produced by the Jesuit Mission Press at Nagasaki in the years 1603 and 04. In a carefully annotated version by Professor Doi, under the title Nippo jisho (Tokyo, 1960), this work is the most important single source for the vocabulary of the period. The second work is the Dictionarium sive Thesauri Linguae Iaponicae Compendium (hereafter the Dictionarium) which is the companion piece to the present text. This dictionary has been carefully edited and cross-referenced by Ōtsuka Mitsunobu, under the title Koriyaado Ra Su Nichi jiten (Tokyo, 1966). In this form it has served as a constant aid to the translator in the determination of the proper glosses for the lexical items in the text.

The aforementioned Arte of 1604-08 by Rodriguez, has been the single most frequently used tool in the preparation of this translation.[40] As the most significant influence upon Collado's work and the source for most of his material, both theoretical and practical, I have related the two works at every point in the translation. In its Japanese version by Professor Doi, Rodorigesu Nihon daibunten (Tokyo, 1950), this work has been invaluable in gaining a clearer understanding of many of the passages which might have otherwise been obscure.

Rodriguez' Arte Breve of 1620, while having no influence upon the preparation of the Ars Grammaticae, is nevertheless of fundamental importance as a work against which Collado's treatment of Japanese grammar is to be judged. This shorter grammar is as yet to be fully translated into English—Moran having limited his study to the treatment of the phonology.

With respect to the text itself I have made this translation on the basis of the facsimile edition published by the Tenri Central Library in 1972 as part of its Classica Japonica series. Ōtsuka Takanobu, Koiyaado-cho Nihongo bunten (Tokyo, 1934) and its revised edition under the title of Koriyaado Nihon bunten (Tokyo, 1957) have served as invaluable aids at every step of the translation.

Ōtsuka's second edition is of invaluable scholarly importance because it contains a cross-reference to the Spanish manuscript from which Collado prepared the printed Latin edition as well as a concordance to the Japanese vocabulary.[41] This translation attempts to supplement Ōtsuka's invaluable contribution by relating the Latin text of this grammar with Rodriguez' Arte.

Editorial Conventions

The Latin matrix of the text is printed in italic letters while the Japanese is in roman. For this translation I have reversed the convention. (In footnotes where the text is quoted the style of the original is followed.) In making editorial corrections in the Japanese material the corrected version is presented in brackets with periods to indicate the general location;

e.g., mairu mai queredomo [... qeredomo]

(The only exception to this rule is the correcting of a missing open o, q.v.) Sentences that have been taken from the Arte are indicated by the parenthetical recording of the leaf number of the citation immediately after the sentence;

e.g., xô tame no chôqui gia (22) 'it is....

Shorter sentences and specific words that in all likelihood have been taken from the Arte are not listed if they are to be found in the section elsewhere noted as being the source of the material covered. Any significant alteration in the form of the source is noted. Since the Arte is numbered by the leaf, v is added to the number to indicate the verso.

All the corrections made by the errata (on page 75 of the text) have been applied to the text without notation unless the correction is itself in error.

The punctuation follows the text with the following exceptions;

1. In translating from Latin the English follows modern rules of punctuation.

2. Single quotes have been introduced into the text to mark glosses and translations.

3. In transcribing the Japanese citations any alteration of the original punctuation is noted.

4. The spacing of words in Japanese—a relatively casual matter in the text—has been regularized on the basis of the predominant pattern.

5. Two specific rules, based upon Collado's more or less consistent usage, are followed in the citing of verb forms:

a. In the most frequent citation of verbs, where the root form is followed by the present indicative ending, a comma is used;

e.g., ari,u; ague,uru; mochi,tçu

b. In an alternate form of citation, where the two forms are given in their entirety, a colon is used;

e.g., ari:aru; ague:aguru; mochi:motçu

Spelling and accentuation are treated in the following manner:

1. The ſ in all instances is represented by s.

2. The usage of v and u has been regularized: the v serves as the consonant; and u as the vowel, semi-vowel, and orthographic symbol; e.g., vaga, uie, quan, and agueta.

3. The predictable nasalization—marked by a tilde in the text—has not been included in the translation unless the presence of nasalization is morphologically significant; e.g., tobu:tõda.

4. The accent grave—which appears in no discernible pattern—is not transcribed in the translation.

5. The accent acute is used in the translation to mark the long ú [u:] and the long, open ó [ɔ:], in those places where the length is marked by Collado. Since the most frequent typographical error in the text is the failure to mark the presence of these long syllables, I follow the convention of correcting the absence of this feature in the Latin text by using the inverted caret in the translation. Thus, the appearance in the translation of mósu indicates that Collado recorded the length of this word, either by an accent acute (e.g., mósu), or an inverted caret (e.g., mǒsu). The appearance of mǒsu indicates that he did not, and that its absence is being corrected. The form mǒsu in the translation is therefore the shorthand equivalent for what would more regularly be mosu [mósu].

6. The circumflex, which indicates the long, closed ô [o:], is corrected as other errors by placing the corrected version of the item in brackets; e.g., roppio [roppiô].

ARS
GRAMMATICAE
IAPONICAE
LINGVAE

IN GRATIAM ET ADIVTORIVM
eorum, qui prædicandi Euangelij causa ad
Iaponiæ Regnum se voluerint conferre.

Composita, & Sacræ de Propaganda Fide Congregationi
dicata à Fr. Didaco Collado Ordinis Prædicatorum
per aliquot annos in prædicto Regno
Fidei Catholicæ propagationis
Ministro.

Vignette of Blessed Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith

ROMÆ,
Typis & impensis Sac. Congr. de Propag. Fide.
MDCXXXII.
SVPERIORVM PERMISSV.

A
Grammar
of the Japanese
Language

FOR THE SAKE AND HELP
of those who wish to go to the Kingdom of
Japan to preach the Gospel.

Composed and dedicated to the Blessed Congregation for the
Propagation of the Faith by Brother Didico Collado,
O.P., who was for many years in that Kingdom
as a Minister for the Propagation of
the Catholic Faith.

Vignette of Blessed Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith

Printed by the Blessed Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith.
1632
BY PERMISSION OF THE SUPERIORS.

It may be published if it please the Most Reverend Father,

Master of the Holy Apostolic Palace.

For the Archbishop of Umbria. The Vicar General.

It may be published.

Brother Nicolaus Riccardius, Master of the Holy Apostolic Palace,

Order of Preachers.

Prologue to the Reader

With Some Advice on the Correct Pronunciation of the Japanese Language

Long ago, at the beginning of the establishment of our orthodox faith in the Japanese kingdom, a grammar of this language was made by Father Ioannus Rodriguez of the Society of Jesus.[42] However, since things rarely turn out perfect at first attempt, and, because of the passing years that have made it difficult to find a copy of this grammar; I thought that it would honor God and the ministers who preach the faith (which cannot be taught without the use of language) if I were to select examples (and there are many) that are useful to this language, neglect those not accepted by the experts of the language, add, with the help of God (who gives words to the evangelists), the words that I have learned from experience, practice, and continuous reading, and by such means offer up a handbook of the Japanese language in which I would bring together in a brief span these examples with those precepts which the preachers (for whom I began this work) need to learn of the Japanese language. This is done because examples are necessary with the rules and precepts so that it is possible to demonstrate the rule which has just been explained. Not only have these examples been selected for the greater help and enjoyment of the students, but also their explanation has been added in Latin (which is the language most common to theologians); thus the teacher will have very little left to be desired. Even if all the elements included in this grammar, as in the dictionary (which with the help of God I plan to publish shortly),[43] are polished enough and sure enough to be used with trust; I would still want them to be submitted to the judgement of the reader so that the preaching of the faith, carried on with a more correct language, may become more fruitful.

When two vowels follow each other in any Japanese word, they are not pronounced as in the Latin word valeo or in the Spanish, vaca, but each is pronounced independently; v, a; v, o; v, i.

The letter s is pronounced as sç; e.g., susumuru, sçusçumuru.

The letter j is pronounced smoothly (blande), as in the Portuguese joaõ and judeo.

The letter x is also pronounced smoothly, as in the Portuguese (4 queixumes.

When there is the sign ˆ over the letter o it is pronounced ou with the lips almost closed and the mouth partly closed; e.g., buppô.

When there is the sign ˇ or ´ over the letter o it is pronounced with the mouth open as if there were two letters, oo; e.g., tenxó or gacuxǒ.[44]

If the signs we have just shown are over the letter u, it is pronounced long as if there were two letters, uu; e.g., taifú or aiaǔ.

When the sign ˜ is over the vowel, the sign should be pronounced like an n, not strongly but swiftly (cursim) and softly (leniter); e.g., vãga.[45]

Qe and Qi are written without u, because when u follows q or c both letters are pronounced as a sinalepha;[46] e.g., quódai or quainin.

When u follows g and immediately after the u is the letter e or i, it should be pronounced as in the Spanish word guenin; but if the letter e or i follows g immediately without the u, it should be pronounced as in the Italian word giorno; e.g., xitãgi.

The letter z is pronounced with the same strength as in the Spanish word zumbar; e.g., mizu.

But if there are two zz then they are pronounced more strongly; e.g., mizzu.

When there are two tt, xx, zz, qq, cq, ij, or pp[47] it is important to persist in order to obtain perfect pronunciation and the exact value of the word; for mizu means 'honey' and mizzu means 'water.' Therefore, if the words are said with the same strength or the same gentleness they can mean either 'water' or 'honey.'

When ch comes before a vowel it is pronounced as in the Spanish chimera; e.g., fochó.

But if nh comes before a vowel it is pronounced as in the Spanish maña; e.g., nhuva.

The letter f is pronounced in various regions of Japan as it is in Latin. In others it is pronounced as if it were an imperfect h. For both pronunciations the lips and the mouth should be nearly, but not completely, closed.

When tç is in a word (and it appears quite frequently) the student should pray that God have mercy on his pronunciation because the word is very difficult, and its pronunciation is not to be found (5 in any other language. It is not truly pronounced tç, nor as s, nor as c alone, but rather by striking the tongue violently against the teeth in order to pronounce both t and ç, but with more ç than t seeming to be sounded; e.g., tçutçumu.

The letter r is said smoothly and softly everywhere it is found, either at the beginning or in the middle of a word; e.g., ranguió, or cutabiruru.

Ya, ye, yo, and yu are pronounced as in Spanish.[48]

When words ending in i or u are pronounced by the Japanese, the last letter is almost not heard by the student. For instance, if he hears gozaru he will think he hears gozar, if he hears fitotçu he will believe he hears only fitotç, and when he hears axi no fara he will perceive only ax no fara.

When a word ending in a vowel is followed immediately by a consonant, particularly b or s,[49] between that vowel and consonant is pronounced the letter n, not perfectly, but softly; e.g., sonõ gotoqu.

I have given special care to the accenting of words.[50] This has been done so that the signs that have been placed correctly over the accented letter will allow the listener to understand the meaning of the words and the sentences of the speaker. For instance, qèixèi has the accent on both èè; fìbicàxi has it on the first i and on the a.[51] This same arrangement will be respected in the dictionary, with the accent being written with the same degree of correctness as is able to be achieved with great attention. If at times I have made mistakes, I am prepared to correct them immediately. Concerning what has been explained too briefly or left out of this grammar and the dictionary, learned people will be able to do that when they add a third dictionary and a third grammar, since it is easy to supply this material. Because I wish neither to be criticized by the Head of our Order (pater familias) and the Lord our God, nor do I wish this knowledge to be wrapped up in a handkerchief;[52] I want by these two works to help and to cooperate in the salvation of the Japanese not only by preaching but also by offering to the preachers, if I can, the tools of the language and chiefly the method by which they might better learn the Japanese language, a task made very difficult by the persecutions in Japan. Farewell, Reader, and be of good cheer. Madrid, 30 August 1631.

(6

In This Grammar We Have for the Most Part Observed the Arrangement Which Antonius Nebrissensis and Others Have Followed in Latin for the Treatment of Sentences, Namely Nouns, Pronouns, Etc.

The Noun—Its Declension and Its Gender

In the Japanese language there are no case declensions as there are in Latin; but there are certain particles, which when suffixed to nouns, determine the differences between the cases for both common and proper nouns. The particles which form the nominative are five; va, ga, cara, no, and iori. The particle va is used when we want to give a sort of reduplicative[53] and specific turn to the person or thing that is signified by such a noun. It indicates either the first, second, or third person; e.g., Vatacuxi va mairanu 'I, or those related to me, will not come.' The particle no is suffixed to the second and third person, especially if they are inferior in rank or in a sentence where there is a relative construction which does not indicate a transitive action; e.g., sonata no móxita coto 'that which you said.' The particle no is also used when some indefinite form is used; e.g., iie no aru ca miió [... miio] 'see if there are houses.' The particle ga is used usually for the first and third persons of inferior status as well as for the second person when he is the most lowly or is to be humiliated; e.g., Pedro ga qita 'Peter came.' This particle is also used to indicate something indefinite, as has been said of the particle no; e.g., coco ni va iie ga nai ca? 'aren't the houses here?' It is also used in sentences that have a relative construction which does not indicate a transitive action. If the reference is to something of inferior or humble status the particle ga is also used; e.g., soregaxi ga caita fumi 'the letter which I wrote,' sochi ga iúta coto 'what you said.' The particles cara and iori are used to form the nominative case when the sentence shows a transitive action, especially if the sentence contains a relative construction; e.g., Deus iori cudasareta gracia 'the mercy which God gave,' tono cara core vo vôxe tçuqerareta 'the Lord taught this.' Sometimes the words are in the nominative case without any particle; e.g., Pedro Ioaõ vo iobareta 'Peter called (7 John.' There are two particles for the genitive; i.e., no and ga. The particle no is used for all persons of superior rank; e.g., Padre no võ qiru mono 'the priest's clothes, or habit.' The particle ga is used for people of inferior rank; e.g., Pedro ga fumi 'Peter's letter,' sochi ga mono 'your thing,' are ga cane 'your money,' tono va iocu ga fucai fito gia 'the Lord is of great cupidity, that is to say he is very eager.' Sometimes the particle to is suffixed to the genitive; e.g., Pedro no to degozaru 'it belongs to Peter.' But since this is not a perfect way of speaking, it is better not to use it. I have cited it so that if you hear it you will understand. When two nouns are joined to form a single word, the one which is like an adjective does not require the genitive particle; e.g., cocuxu 'the Lord of the kingdom.' According to the ordinary rule we should say cocu no xu. This way of forming the genitive is very common in Japanese; e.g., Maria coto 'Mary's thing.'

Two particles form the dative; i.e., ni and ie. For example, Pedro ni móxita 'I told Peter,' Padre ie ague maraxita 'I gave, or offered, it to the priest.'

There are five particles which form the accusative case; i.e., vo, voba, va, ie, and ga. The first, vo, is the most used; e.g., Pedro vo iobe 'call Peter.' Va is used when one wishes to express in particular a noun in the accusative; e.g., niffon guchi va xiranu[54] 'I don't know Japanese.' The ending voba is the same as vo va, changing the second v to b they use it as va; e.g., fune voba nori sutete; cane bacari tori maraxita 'abandoning ship, I took only money, or gold, with me.' Ie is used to indicate the place to which one goes; e.g., Roma ie mairó 'I go to Rome.' Ga is used for nouns which indicate non-living or humble things; e.g., are ie gozare, mono ga móxitai 'go there! I have something to tell you.' The accusative is also formed without any particle, as has been shown in the example second before last, where the second accusative is without a particle.

The vocative is formed with the particle icani. It is not suffixed to words as are the other particles but it is prefixed instead; e.g., icani qimi core vo goronjerarei 'look at this, My Lord.'[55] Usually, however, the vocative is formed without any particle; e.g., Padre sama (8 qicaxerareio 'listen, Reverend Father.'

There are three particles for the ablative; i.e., iori, cara, and ni. The third indicates the place in which; e.g., iglesia ni gozaru 'he is in church.' Sometimes ni is used after no; e.g., sonata no ni xi aru ca? 'are you going to make it yours, or take it for yours?' But this seems much more a dative than an ablative. The particles cara and iori are more common in the formation of the ablative; e.g., Madrid cara maitta 'I came from Madrid,' Pedro iori corosareta 'he was killed by Peter.'

There are four particles used to form the plural. They are placed immediately after the noun they pluralize and before the particles which indicate case. These four particles are tachi, xu, domo, and ra. The first, tachi, forms the plural of those noble things which one wishes to honor; e.g., tono tachi 'lords.' The particle xu forms the plural for noble things but not those of the highest rank; e.g., samurai xu 'nobles (nobiles), but not lords (domini).' The particle domo is suffixed to words which indicate humble things, either abstract, animate, or inanimate; e.g., fiacuxó domo 'farmer,' ixi domo 'stones,' mma domo 'horses.' The particle ra forms the plural of nouns which indicate very low things which are to be despised; e.g., Iudeo ra 'Jews.'[56] The case particles which are required by the sentence are placed after the pluralizing particles; e.g., tono tachi no coto domo vo varú iú na 'don't speak badly about the Lords' affairs.'

There are some words that are plural in themselves; e.g., tomo gara means 'men,' Nan ban mono 'European things,' Nan ban mono vo fomuru na 'don't praise European things.'

The particle icani, which as has been indicated above forms the vocative, is not placed after but always before the pronouns which are made plural, while the particles which form the plural are placed after; e.g., icani Padre tachi vo qiqi nasare io 'listen to the priests.'

But two of the four particles which form the plural, domo and ra, are with certain words singular. Varera and midomo mean 'I.' Sometimes both are found together in the singular; e.g., midomora 'I,' midomora ga 'my, or mine.' The particles domo and ra are also (9 suffixed to the singular when one wishes to humiliate the thing mentioned; e.g., hara domo ga itai 'I have a stomach ache,' asu domo va aru mai 'tomorrow will not come,' asu ra va naró mode 'tomorrow will perhaps not come.'

The particle va is suffixed to singular and plural nouns which already have a particle; e.g., coco ie va mairanu 'he will not come here,' coco cara va denu 'he did not go out from here,' coco ni va aru mai 'he will not enter here.' Sometimes va replaces the particles of the declension; e.g., fune de saie ióió tçuita ni, cachi va nacanaca naru mai (119v) 'I arrived with such difficulty by ship: I would undoubtedly never have arrived had I come by foot, or on foot.'[57] The particle va here replaces cara.

Japanese does not have the genders feminine, masculine, and neuter as Latin does. There are, however, certain nouns which are feminine or masculine because of their meaning. Other nouns are common to both these genders. For things which do not have a proper gender vo is placed before masculine nouns and me before feminine; e.g., voivo means 'male fish' and meivo 'female fish,' vojica means 'roe-buck,' melica [mejica] 'roe-doe,'[58] coma means 'horse,' zoiacu 'mare,' xô means 'male hawk,' dai 'female hawk,' cotoi means 'bull,' meuxi 'cow,' votoco means 'man,' vonago, nhóbó, or vonna 'woman.' All these words are placed in the dictionary as they come to mind.

The nominal adjectives have no gender or declension but make use of the same particles as the nouns. There are however many and diverse adjectives. Certain ones end in ai others in oi, ei, ui and ij. There are other, more proper adjectives, which are formed by adding no to nouns. When the first five types of adjectives are placed before nouns they are then properly adjectives and do not in any way alter the composition of the sentence. But when they are placed after nouns they become more like verbs and are in fact conjugated like them; e.g., tacai iama 'a high mountain,' xiguei ideiri 'frequent comings and goings,' caxicoi (10 fito 'a wise man,' cavaij mono 'a wretched thing,' aiaui coto 'a dangerous thing,' umare tçuqi no cuchi 'one's natural, or mother tongue.' There are also adjectives ending in na which, when they are placed before nouns, do not alter the construction; e.g., qirei na coto 'a clean thing.' All the adjectives, except those ending in no, change their form in some way when they occur before verbs. Those that end in ai change to ó; e.g., cono iama va tacó gozaru 'this mountain is lofty.' Those ending in ei change to eô; e.g., cono iama va xigueô gozaru 'these mountains are dense.' Those ending in oi change to ô; e.g., caxicô gozaru 'he is wise.' Those ending in ui change to ú; e.g., xei no ficú gozaru 'he is small in stature.' Those ending in ii [ij] change to iú; e.g., caiú gozaru 'it itches.'[59] Among those adjectives ending in ij there are many which come from verbs; e.g., nozomi,u means 'to wish,' and from it comes nozomaxij 'which is to be wished for.' Other adjectives come from nouns; e.g., varambe means 'a child, or infant,' and from this comes varamberaxij which means 'childish.' Other examples may be found in the dictionary.

Adjectives which end in na change the na to ni when they are placed before verbs; e.g., fuxin ni zonzuru 'I think it doubtful.' The adjectives that end in no sometimes change the no to na; e.g., bechi no fito changes to bechi na fito 'a different man.' Sometimes when it is followed by a verb the na changes to a ni; e.g., bechi ni gozaru 'it is different.' However, the meaning remains the same whether the word ends in na or no; e.g., bechi no fito no cuhi cara qiita [... cuchi ...] is the same as bechi na fito no cuchi cara qiita 'I heard it from the mouth of a different person.'[60] The only difference in these forms is that when the word ends in no no change occurs as a consequence of what follows. But, as has been said, those adjectives that end in na change to ni when they come before a verb. If a substantive verb follows an adjective, it is an elegant statement; e.g., cono iami va tacó gozaru 'this mountain is high.' But if this kind of verb does not follow, the sense is not altered since the adjective is used as a substantive verb. But this is not used before superiors. To them we will not say cono iama va tacai but rather cono iama va tacó gozaru. The same is true for the other adjectives.

Adjectives usually end in i but infrequently these adjectives change to xi or to qu. Ioi, which means 'good,' changes to ioqu, or ioxi; e.g., ioqu dancó xite, which has the meaning of 'offering good (11 council.'[61] There are innumerable nouns which become adjectives if na is suffixed to them; e.g., afo means 'ignorance' and from it comes the word afo na which means 'ignorant,' jiiu means 'liberty' and jiiu na means 'which is free.' Other examples are offered by the dictionary.

There are certain abstract nouns which become adjectives when they precede a vocable (vocabulis) with the meaning of 'man'; e.g., jifi means 'pity,' but when the word jin is placed after it, it becomes jifijin 'a pitiable person.' Fin means 'poverty,' but when the word nin is suffixed to it, it becomes finnin 'a poor person.' In the same way, when one suffixes ja to fin, it makes finja, which also means 'a poor person.' The word ban means 'watch,' but if the word ja is added to it, it becomes banja 'a careful person.' Many other examples can be found in the dictionary.

There are in Japanese certain words which are borrowed from Chinese, called cobita[62] or coie, and are written together to form by their union a noun and an adjective. Thus, ten mean 'heaven,' xu means 'lord,' and tenxu means 'lord of heaven.'

The preterit of verbs (which will be taken up in their place) seem to have the same strength and meaning as adjectives when they are used before nouns; e.g., iogoreta te 'dirty hands,' where iogoreta is the preterit of the verb iogore,uru 'I became dirty.' Caita qió means 'a written book' and caita is the preterit of the verb caqi,u I write.' The abstract (abstracta), or root from which the verb is formed, is itself a noun which signifies the action of the verb in the abstract; e.g., facari means 'measure,' and it comes from the verb facari,u 'I measure' while fajime means 'beginning,' and comes from the verb fajime,uru 'I begin.' Others will be found in the dictionary. The prepositional particle mono, when placed before an abstract or verbal noun, forms a noun which indicates the subject who does the action; e.g., mono before caqi makes monocaqi 'one who writes.' This same particle when placed after a root forms a noun which indicates the effect of an action; e.g., caqimono 'a writing.'

The particle goto placed after these same roots forms a noun (12 which means a thing which is worthy of the action indicated by the verb; e.g., mi is the root of the verb mi,uru 'I see,' and migoto is 'a visible thing, or a thing worthy of being seen'; while qiqi is the root of the verb qiqi,u 'I hear,' and qiqigoto means 'a thing which can be heard, or is worthy of being heard.'

If we place certain substantive nouns after certain of the verbal nouns about which we have been speaking, there is formed a noun which has the meaning of the action; e.g., foxi is the root of the verb foxi,u 'to dry under the sun'; but, if ivo 'fish' is placed after it, the meaning of the expression foxiivo becomes 'fish dried in the sun.'

When the particle dógu 'instrument' is placed after the root of a verb it forms a noun meaning the cause or instrument of the action indicated by the verb; e.g., varaidógu 'the cause, or instrument of ridicule,' caqidógu 'a writing instrument, or an instrument for writing.'

The particle me when suffixed to a verb forms a noun which indicates the terminus of the action; e.g., avaxe is the root of the verb avaxe,uru 'to unite or join two things,' and avaxeme means 'junction.' The same is true of other forms.

An abstract noun can be formed from those adjectives ending in i if the i is changed to sa; e.g., nagai means 'is long,' and nagasa means 'length.' The adjectives ending in na change the na to sa in order to form abstract nouns; e.g., aqiraca na which means 'clear' will become aqiracasa 'clarity.'

Sometimes from two nouns taken together, often with a change in the first or last letter, there is formed a third noun, which is quasi-descriptive (quasi connotativus), almost like an adjective or noun with a genitive; e.g., from qi 'wood' and fotoqe 'idol' there results qibotoqe 'wooden idol,' with the f changed to p [b]. But if the prefixed noun ends in e, this e is changed to a in the attributive of the compound; e.g., tçumasaqi 'the tip of the nail,' canacugui 'iron nails.' A word which is placed second in these compounds may change its first letter; if it is f it becomes b or p, if it is s it becomes z, if it is c it becomes g, if it is tç it becomes zz, if it is x it becomes j; e.g., caribune, buppô, (13 nigorizaqe, soragoto, qizzumari, and sorajeimon. See the dictionary.

Pronouns

In the Japanese language there are no derivative pronouns, such as meus,a,um, etc.; but the primitive pronouns, such as mei, tui, etc., are used. These primitive forms do not have declensions for case, but rather use the particles which are common to both nouns and pronouns.

Certain particles (about which we will speak later) when added to a word indicate honor and thereby form a pronoun or substitute for it in such circumstances as pronouns would normally be used. Thus, if I say von fumi, when speaking to someone else, it is immediately understood that I am speaking about his letter and not mine; for if I were speaking about mine I would not say von fumi but only fumi, since the particle von, which indicates honor, signifies 'your letter.' This is also true for such particles as mi which also attributes honor to the noun to which it is joined.

First Person Pronouns—Ego, etc.[63]

There are eight particles which signify 'I, mine, to me, etc.' They are vatacuxi, soregaxi, vare, mi, varera, midomo, midomora, vare.[64] The first four indicate a degree of superiority on the part of those who use them. The others are more humble. Women use three other particles mizzucara, varava, and vagami which are not used by men. The people in the countryside use two others, vara [vora] and vorara, while priests when speaking of themselves use gusô, that is to say 'I, a worthless man of the cloth,' and old men when speaking of themselves use guró, 'I, a worthless and despicable old man.' The king (rex) says chin or maru which means 'I, the King.' (14

To form the plural of these pronouns the pluralizing particles domo or ra are added; e.g., midomo ga maitta toqi 'when we went.' To indicate the difference between the cases, the endings about which we have spoken are suffixed.

Second Person Pronouns—Tu, tui, tibi, etc.[65]

There are many particles that form the second person pronoun. They are differentiated to indicate those persons deserving no honor and respect, those deserving some, moderate, great, or maximal honor and respect. In speaking to inferiors there are three particles used for 'you'; vare, vonore, and sochi. If me or mega is added as in vareme or varemega it means we very much despise the person being spoken to. If we speak to people who are on our own level, or just a little inferior, we use one of the three particles sonata, sonofǒ, or varesama. If we speak to a superior person, or someone on an equal level but with whom we must speak elegantly, we use one of the seven particles conata, qixo, qifó, gofen, qiden, conatasama, and sonatasama. When speaking to persons of high rank, if we place the name of their office before sama, it serves as a pronoun; e.g., Padresama gozare 'will the Father come.'

Conata, cochi, and conofǒ mean 'I, mine,' but in the distributive sense of 'from me, or what concerns me.' In the same way sochi, sonofó, and sonata mean 'you, from you, or what concerns you.'

The plurals are formed by adding the particles listed above to the pronouns according to the different degrees of honor. Vonore domo, varera, and sochira mean 'you' when speaking to inferiors. Vare tachi and sonata domo mean 'you' with persons of the same rank. Qifó tachi, vocatagata, and vono vono mean 'you' to persons requiring honor. The declension of these honorable expressions follows the declension (15 of common particles.

Third Person Pronouns—Ille, illa, illud[66]

The two particles care care and are are mean 'this (ille, illa, illud)' when speaking of inferior things.[67] There are four particles; aitçu, aitçume, areme, and caitçume which mean 'this' when one wants to show disrespect for the things being spoken about. This idea is emphasized if one adds ga to those forms that end in me; e.g., aitçuga and aitçumega 'this humble man.' Cono means 'this (hic, haec, hoc),' sono means 'that (iste, ista, istud),' and ano means 'that (ille, illa, illud).' These words require a noun after them; e.g., cono fito 'this man' with cono mono having the same meaning but not being an honorific expression. Sono coto means 'that thing,' ano fito 'that person,' conata or conofó 'here,' sonata or sonofó 'there,' and anofó 'there, yonder.' Core means 'this (hic),' sore 'that (istud),' and are 'that (illud).' These forms are in the neuter gender and are not followed by nouns. Their plurals are corera, sorera, and arera, while the others follow the common rules. Cano means 'that which we have mentioned'; e.g., cano fito 'that person.' The pronoun 'a certain (quidam)' is made with the particle aru; e.g., aru fito 'a certain person,' aru tocoro ni 'in a certain place.'

The pronoun 'each (unusquisque)' is formed with the particles men men and sore sore.

The pronoun 'each and every (universi & singuli)' is formed with tare mo mina.

The pronoun 'anyone (quicumque)' is formed with tare nite mo, tare nite mo are, and tare nari tomo.

The particle tare mo, when placed before a negative, forms the pronoun 'no one, or nobody'; e.g., tare mo mairananda 'nobody went.' The particle nani taru coto nari tomo means 'whatever happens, or whichever thing happens.' The particle mei mei means 'to each, or everyone in particular.'

The particle goto makes the distributive pronoun meaning 'every.' This form is used after vocables which are proper to the Japanese language; i.e., iomi. The same results are achieved by placing the (16 particle mai before vocables which come from the Chinese language; i.e., coie. For example, fi means 'day,' and figoto ni means 'daily.' Nen is a Japanese borrowing from a Chinese word meaning 'year,' and mainen means 'every year, or all year.' The same result is obtained by the repetition of the noun; e.g., fito means 'person,' and fitibito means 'all the people, or many people,' fi means 'day,' and fibi ni means 'all of the days, or every day.'

The indefinite pronoun 'some (aliqui)' is formed with niiotte; e.g., toqi niiotte 'some times,' fito niiotte 'some men.'

The pronoun 'the same (idem)' is formed with vonaji; e.g., vonaji tocoro cara 'from the same place.' The particle dôjen means the same thing but in the neuter ; e.g., dôjen degozaru 'it is the same.' This word is used in reply to some one who has congratulated you, etc.

The pronoun 'himself (ipse)' is formed with the particles nuxi, sono mi, and vaga. The particle vareto mi forms the pronoun 'himself (ipsemet)'; e.g., vareto mi ni ata vo nasu (96) 'he brings harm to himself,' mi vo vasurete; ta vo tasuquru 'he forgets himself and saves others.' The particle vatacuxi means 'a thing which belongs to oneself (re propria)'; e.g., vatacuxi no coto 'ones own thing,' vatacuxi ni ivareta 'he spoke for himself.'

The pronoun 'somebody (aliquis)' is made with the particles tare zo and taso; e.g., tare zo maittaraba 'if somebody were to come,' taso sacana ga aru ca tói ni iqe [... toi ...] 'let someone go and ask if there is food.'

The neuter pronoun 'something (aliquid)' is formed with the particles nan zo and nanica; e.g., nan zo ga araba cuvózu 'I would eat if there were something,' ima faia te ga jiiú ni gozaru fodo ni nanica caqi maraxô 'I would write something if I were to have my hands free, or untied.'

The interrogative 'who (quis)' is translated with the three particles tare, taga, and taso. The particles taga or tare no form the genitive; e.g., taga mono ca 'whose thing is this.' When someone comes to the door and knocks, he says mono mó.[68] To this one responds taso, taga, or tare 'who is it?' Nani means 'what (quid)'; e.g., nani vo suru (17 ca or nani goto vo suru ca? 'what are you doing?' nani ni sore vo totte iqu ca? 'for what reason do you bring this to me?'

Relative Pronouns

The relative pronoun is formed by placing the noun, in connection with which there is a relative (relativum), after the verb; e.g., ten ni maximasu varera ga von voia 'Our Father who is in Heaven,' deta tocoro va 'the place from which he came out,' te ni sumi no tçuita fito (88) 'a man to whose hands ink is adhering.' If the sentence (oratio) requires a nominative before the verb it must be formed with one of the particles which indicate the nominative; ga, no, or iori. For example, vatacuxi ga caita fumi 'the letter which I wrote,' conata no vôxerareta coto 'the thing which Your Lordship says.' The third particle, iori, is used when there is movement in the sentence; e.g., Deus iori ataie cudasareta gracia 'the grace which God provided, or gave,' ano tocoro ni amata no qió atta vo torareta (87v.) 'he brought what many books there were in that place.' When two sentences containing a relation come together the first is placed second by general rule,[69] and the second uses either a past, present, or future particle according to what is required by the sense of the sentence; e.g., qesa Oracio vo móxita qió ga tçucuie no uie ni aru vo motte coi 'bring the book which is on the desk (sedila) at which I said my prayers this morning.' In this sentence qió ga, which is the first relative, comes after the verb móxita; and the vo which stands for the second relative comes after the verb aru. When we want to be more specific about that of which we are speaking we place the particle tocoro no between the thing itself and the verb; e.g., vare to dôxin xita tocoro no mono domo va mina buguen ni natta 'all those who agreed with me became rich.' Sometimes the relative, because of the difficulty in understanding it, is expressed by expositions (per exponentes). Thus, in place of ima corosareta Pedro no co va sonata no chijn gia which means 'the son of Peter who has just been killed was your friend,' we say ima Pedro corosareta sono co va sonata no chijn de gozaru.

Sometimes they join two particles, as determined by the case, and form a kind of relative pronoun which is placed before the relative; e.g., sono tocoro de no dancó 'the consultation at that place,' (18 Marsella ie no fune 'the ship to Marseille,' maire to no móxi goto dearu [ ... gia] 'it is said that I should go.'

Mairu mai to no dancó ni qivamatta 'it was resolved that he not go,' maitte nochi no dancó 'the consultation he arrived after,' varambe cara no catagui 'a custom from youth,' xô tame no chôgui gia (22) 'this is the plan (ars) according to which it will be done,' anofito no vo toró 'I shall take what belongs to that man.' This ends the note on relative pronouns.

The Formation of the Verb and Its Conjugation[70]

The verbs in Japanese have no number or person. These distinctions are indicated instead by the particles used in the formation of the plurals and in the declensions. There are three affirmative conjugations and the same number of negative.

The root (radix) of the verb does not by itself indicate tense. For this reason it is necessary to conjugate the verb in order to show the tenses.

All the verbs of the first conjugation[71] end in e. Those ending in gi or ji, together with xi and maraxi, although they end in i, are also in the first conjugation. If the root ends in de or gi, the present form is made by changing them to zzuru; e.g., fagi forms its present in fazzuru and means 'to blush,' de becomes zzuru and means 'to leave.' If the root ends in je or ji it changes in the present to zuru; e.g., maje:mazuru 'to mix,' anji:anzuru 'to consider.' If they end in xe they change to suru; e.g., avaxe:avasuru 'to join.' Xi and maraxi, which (as we have said) are in the first conjugation,[72] change xi to suru; e.g., xi:suru 'to do,' maraxi:marasuru which also means 'to do.' If the root ends in te it changes to tçuru; e.g., sodate:sodatçuru 'to nourish, or support.' The remaining roots which end in e change, in their separate ways, the e to uru; e.g., ague:aguru 'to offer,' nigue:niguru 'to run away.'

There are certain verbal preterits which have present tense meanings. They are those which are passive in form but active in (19 meaning; e.g., cocoroieta 'to understand,' qicoieta 'to hear,' voboieta 'to remember,' qiqiieta 'to understand,' zonjita 'to know,' and there may be many others. The verbs which follow belong to the first conjugation even though their roots do not end as previously stated.[73] If the present tense of these forms does not change the i to uru they are exceptional; e.g., abi,uru 'to wash oneself,' fotobi,uru 'to become soft,' focorobi,uru 'to become unstitched,' cabi [cabi,uru] 'to be moldy,'[74] sabi [sabi,uru] 'to rust,' deqi [deqi,uru] 'to be finished, or ended,' cuchi:cutçuru 'to rot,' michi:mitçuru 'to be filled in by the sea,' ini,uru 'to leave,' nobi:nobiru or noburu 'to be spread out,' tçuqi,uru 'to be used,' vori:uru 'to descend from above,' xij:xijru[75] 'to invite to dine, by compulsion,' ni:niru 'to resemble,' mochij:mochiiuru 'to evaluate,' ni:niru 'to cook,' mi:miru 'to look at,' cori,uru 'to correct,' vochi:votçuru 'to fall,' i:iru 'to exist, or be present,' fugui,uru 'to pass, as time passes,' vabi,uru 'to beg for mercy,' carabi,uru 'to become dry,' iqi:iquru 'to live,' fi:firu 'to become dry,' qi:quru 'to come,' qi:qiru 'to dress oneself,' voqi,uru 'to get out of bed.' The following four verbs have irregular, as well as regular, present tenses;[76] ataie has atóru 'to give,' vaqimaie has vaqimǒru 'to discriminate,' tonaie has tonóru 'to bless,' sonaie has sonóru 'to place in a high position.'

The Preterit, Perfect, Imperfect, and Pluperfect

In Japanese there is no imperfect. In its place the perfect is used. The perfect is formed in two ways. The first is by suffixing ta to the root of a verb ; e.g., agueta is the preterit of the verb ague,uru 'to offer.' The second is by suffixing te to the root and to that adding gozari,u or ari,u which is then conjugated in the present or the preterit of the second conjugation; e.g., aguete gozaru or aguete gozatta, or aguete aru or aguete atta 'offered, or had offered.' If the particle fáia [faia] is placed before the verb the expression is strengthened; e.g., (20 fáia aguete gozatta [faia ...] 'I had already offered it.' When the verb ari,u is suffixed to the perfect it is not as elegant a way of speaking as when gozari,u is used. Therefore when speaking one must be careful about what one says, or in front of whom one speaks, so as to give each person the honor he deserves.

The Future of the First Conjugation

If the root of the verb ends in te this syllable is changed to teô or chô to form the future; e.g., tate,uru will become tateô or tachô 'I shall build.'[77] If the root ends in ji the future is formed by changing ji to jô; e.g., xenji becomes xenjô 'I shall prepare, or brew, the medicine.' If the root ends in xe [xi] it changes to xô; e.g., xi becomes xô, and maraxi becomes maraxô 'I shall do.' If it ends in ie it is changed to io [iô]; e.g., voxiie becomes voxiio [vaxiiô] 'I shall teach.' The remaining roots ending in e suffix the particles ô, ôzu, or ôzuru; e.g., agueô, agueôzu, or agueôzuru 'I shall offer.' These endings are used for the first conjugation[78] even when the roots end in i; e.g., deqiôzu 'I shall be finished.'

The future is also formed by taking the syllable nu from the negative present (see below) and putting in its place the particle baia. Thus, by taking nu away from aguenu and putting in its place baia, we obtain aguebaia 'I will offer.' For minu if you take away the nu and put in its place baia it will become mibaia 'I will see, or behold.'

The future perfect is formed by suffixing the particles te arózu or tarózu to the root; e.g., aguete arózu or aguetarózu 'I shall already have offered.' The same results are obtained if faia is placed before the simple future; e.g., faia agueôzu.

(21

The Imperative of the First Conjugation

The imperative of the first conjugation is formed with the root of the verb alone, or with the addition of the particle io; e.g., ague or ague io 'offer!'[79] The future of the imperative is the future absolute agueô or agueôzu. This is a more elegant and polite way of speaking than giving a command with the regular imperative. The imperative is also formed by taking the nu from the negative present (see below) and putting in its place the particle sai. Thus, if one takes the nu from aguenu and replaces it with sai it becomes ague sai which means 'offer!' If the particle tai is placed after the root there is formed a kind of future or optative by which the wish of the speaker is expressed. It is therefore an elegant imperative; thus mizzu fitotçu nomitai 'I would like to have a drink of water' is the same as 'give me some water to drink.' When a relative [clause] concerns a precept, rule, admonition, or prohibition the imperative is expressed word for word in whatever the conjugation, affirmative or negative; e.g., Christiani naru na to no xógun no fatto ga aru [Christian ni ...] 'it is the law of the Shōgan (imperator) that no one should become a Christian,' Padre core vo coxiraie io to voxerareta niiotte [... vôxerareta ...] 'because the Priest told me to do it.'

The Optative of the First Conjugation

The optative, both present and future, is the present tense of the imperative with the particles negavacu va or avare placed before it and the particles gana or caxi placed after it. Sometimes it is formed by adding the particle gana without any prefix; e.g., negavacu va ague io caxi? or avare aguei gana[80] 'would that you were to offer?' avare icanaru tengu, bangue mono nari tomo vare vo totte, fiie no iama ni noboxe io caxi! (15v)[81] 'Oh! if there were some one, either devil or soothsayer, who could make me ascend the mountain called Hie.' The particle gana when it is placed after a noun indicates a wish for the thing specified by the noun; e.g., saqe gana 'oh! sake'; and if (22 one is asked if he would like something to drink, the answer is nani gana 'would that I had some.'

The perfect of the optative is the second form of the future followed by the particle mono vo!; e.g., niqueozu mono vo! [nigueôzu ...] 'would that I had fled!' The same is achieved by niguetaraba iocaró mono vo. Sometimes they say only niguetaró va or niguete aró ni va iocaró mono vo.

The Subjunctive of the First Affirmative Conjugation

The present tense of the subjunctive is formed by changing the u in which the present indicative ends to eba; e.g., aguru becomes agureba 'since I offer.' It is also formed from the present by adding ni, de, vo, or va to the particle tocoro according to the case requirements of the verb that follows, with the first verb being controlled by the noun; e.g., aru toqi Pedro chinsui xite iraruru tocoro ie fito ga qite (16v)[82] 'since a certain man came to the place where Peter was when he was drunk,' nhóbó ni tachi vacarete iru tocoro ni (16v)[83] 'since they were separated and divorced,' có aru tocoro ni 'since things are this way,' ioso ie zzuru tocoro va fito ni corosareta (16v)[84] 'when he went outside, he was killed by someone,' go misa vo asobaruru tocoro vo uchi coroita (121)[85] 'he killed him while he was celebrating mass.' This is a general rule which applies to all conjugations.

The perfect and the pluperfect of the subjunctive are formed from these same tenses in the indicative with the addition of the particle reba; e.g., agueta reba 'since he had offered.' It is also formed by taking away gozaru from the preterit pluperfect and putting in its place atta reba or atta; but, when atta is used, the particles ni, vo, va, or ie must be added according to the requirements of the following verb, just as with tocoro in the present tenses; e.g., aguete atta reba or aguete atta ni, vo, va, or ie 'since I had already offered it.'

The future of the subjunctive is formed by adding the particle toqi to the future indicative; e.g., agueô toqi 'since he would offer it later.'

The pluperfect subjunctive, with all the expressions (vox) which signify that which comes after a completed action, is formed by (23 placing cara, nochi, or igo after the pluperfect indicative, minus gozaru; e.g., aguete cara, nochi, or igo, mairó 'I shall leave after he has offered it.' This is like aguetaró toki mairó 'I shall leave after he has already offered it.' Agueôzuru ni or agueôzuru tocoro ni means 'since he was already prepared to offer it.' Agueôzuru coto no saqi ni means 'a little while before he offered it.'

The present tense of the permissive subjunctive is formed in two ways. The first is by changing the u of the present indicative to edomo; e.g., aguredomo 'although I could offer it.'

The preterit of the permissive subjunctive is formed by adding redomo to the preterit indicative; e.g., agueta redomo 'although he had offered it.' The future permissive is formed by adding redomo to the second form of the future indicative; e.g., agueôzu redomo 'although he would be able to offer it.' The second form of the permissive subjunctive is formed by adding the particle tomo to the present indicative; e.g., aguru tomo 'although he could offer it.' The particles mamaio or madeio may also be added to the present tense; e.g., sore vo voxiiuru mamaio or sore vo voxiiuru madeio 'although he could teach this.'

The preterit of the second permissive is formed by suffixing ritomo to the preterit indicative; e.g., agueta ritomo 'although he had offered it.' The same meaning is achieved by adding the particles mamaio or madeio to the preterit indicative; e.g., agueta mamaio or agueta madeio; or by adding tote to the preterit subjunctive; e.g., aguetareba tote.

The future permissive is formed by adding tomo to the second form of the future indicative; e.g., agueozu tomo [agueôzu tomo 'although he would offer it']. It is also formed by adding mamaio or madeio to the same future form. If the particle tatoi is placed before the forms of the permissive subjunctive great strength is added to the sentence; e.g., tatoi vôxeraruru tomo 'even though you may state this.' The same meaning is obtained by removing the verbs gozaru or aru from the pluperfect indicative and replacing it with the particle mo; e.g., aguete mo 'although he may offer it.' The same mo when placed after the present indicative gives the same meaning; e.g., doco de qiqi marasuru mo, sono sata va mósanu 'although he hears that everywhere, he does not pay any attention.' The same meaning is obtained by the sentences ague mo xeio caxi?, aguete mo xô madeio, and nanto mo ague caxi? [... aguei caxi?][86] 'although he offers.' Aguru ni saxerarei, (24 agueta ni saxerarei, or agueo ni saxerarei [agueô ...] have the meanings of 'although he could have offered, although he could offer, or although he would offer'; or one might say 'let us offer' or 'let us give.'

The Infinitive

The present infinitive is formed by adding coto or to to the present indicative; e.g., aguru coto or aguru to 'to offer.'

The preterit infinitive is formed by adding the same particles to the preterit indicative; e.g., agueta coto or agueta to 'to have offered.' The future infinitive is formed by adding the same particles to the future indicative; e.g., agueô coto or agueô to 'to be about to offer.' The same meaning is obtained by adding ióni to the present, preterit, or future indicative; e.g., nai nai guioi ni caqerareô ióni va vare mo zonzuru fitobito mo zonjita (22v) 'I think and others believed me to have been favored by you with many benefits,' qeccu vare ni voxiie marasuru ióni gozaru (117v) 'he is truly able to teach me,' agueta ióni gozaru 'he is said to have offered it.'

To ask or answer a question the infinitive is often subordinate to the verb which follows; e.g., nhóbógata ni vochita coto ga atta ca? 'did you fall into the sin of adultery with this woman? is this what happened?' etc. All the tenses of the infinitive are used in the same way.

Sometimes the preterit infinitive is replaced by the pluperfect with gozaru or aru removed; e.g., Deus no minori vo firomete iocaró 'it is good to spread the Gospel.' Sometimes the present or preterit indicative plus ga replaces the present or preterit of the infinitive; e.g., sore vo vôxeraruru ga varú gozaró 'it will be bad to say that,' maitta ga maxi gia (21) 'it is better to have come, or it was better to come.'

When the substantive verb follows the infinitive, the particle coto is not required; e.g., cosacazzuqi de va saqe vo nomu devanai (23) 'to drink sake from a small glass is not to drink sake,' core coso caqu de gozare 'this we are able to say, or better, write,' caqu de gozatte coso 'this is not the way for it to be written,' sore va aguru devanai 'that is not to offer it.' Some of these examples are taken from other (25 conjugations but the general rule applies to all. The idea of the infinitive is also obtained by the following means of expression; ague va, aguredomo 'although I offered, or even if I made it so that it was offered.' Because this is a general rule for all the conjugations, they also say qiqi va tçucamatçure domo gatten xenu 'although I have listened, or done everything necessary to hear; I still don't understand.' They also say aguru vo motte 'by offering, or with the fact that he is to offer,' aguru iori 'from the fact that he is to offer,' aguru nitçuite 'about the fact that he is to offer.'

The gerund in Di is the present or future indicative followed by the particle jibun, or less frequently some other particle meaning 'time'; e.g., aguru jibun 'the time for offering,' agueô ni qivamatta 'he made the decision that it be offered,' niguru jibun gia 'it is time to flee,' corosareôzuru ni aisadamatte arǒzu (13) 'it will have been decided that he will be killed, or will have to be killed.'

The gerund in Do is formed in two ways. The first is by adding the particles ni or tote to the present indicative; e.g., aguruni or agurutote iurusareta 'I was freed by it being offered.' The second way is by removing the verb gozaru from the pluperfect; e.g., aguete cutabireta 'I became tired by offering, or raising up,' that is to say, 'from the action of presenting, or raising up, I suffered the result of becoming tired.' There is also another elegant, and frequently used, way to form the gerund in Do. It is done by placing the root of the verb in front of another verb making a compound; e.g., fiqi iosuru 'to approach, pulling.' The roots which are used in this way do not change with respect to their function. The gerund in Do is also used to express purpose taixó to xite 'since he was a commander (dux), or was fulfilling the function of a commander,' von rei to xite 'giving thanks,' rǒtai nomi ni xite 'since he was an old man,' tçucai xite ivaruru 'he said it as a messenger.'

The gerund in Dum is formed by adding the particles tame or tote to the present or future indicative; e.g., aguru tame or agueo tote [agueô tote] 'in order to offer.' The same meaning is obtained by aguru ni fatto ga aru 'there is a law about offering,' unless this should be considered a gerund in ni [Di].

The supine in Tum is formed in two ways. The first is by adding ni to the root. The second is by adding tameni to the present indicative; e.g., tazzune ni maitta or tazzunuru tameni maitta 'I came in order to obtain it.'

The supine in Tu is the root of the verb alone. To obtain the same meaning they also use mósu ni voiobanu 'it is not necessary to (26 speak.'

The present, preterit, and future participles are formed by adding the particles fito or mono to the indicative. When fito is used the result is a more honorable way of speaking; e.g., aguru fito or aguru mono 'he who offers,' agueta fito 'he who offered,' agueô mono 'he who will offer,' Buppôgacu suru tomogara ni voite va (73v) 'as for those who devote themselves to the study of the laws of idolatry,' von vo xiru vo fito to va iúzo; von vo xiranu voba chicuxó to coso iie (96v). In this last sentence the vo takes the place of the participle, and the sentence therefore means 'those who know kindness (beneficia) are correctly called men; those who do not know it are truly called beasts.' This is a general rule for all the conjugations and therefore the example contains a verb from the second conjugation. The participle is also made by adding te ['hand'] to the root of the verb; e.g., aguete 'one who offers.'

The First Negative Conjugation

The negative root is formed by adding zu to the affirmative root; e.g., aguezu.

The present tense is formed with nu instead of zu; e.g., aguenu 'I do not offer.' This is a general rule no matter how the root ends. The only exceptions are xi and maraxi which form the negative present in xenu and maraxenu 'I do not do.' The roots that end in ji change the ji to je and then suffix the particle nu to the present; e.g., zonji in the negative present becomes zonienu [zonjenu] 'I do not know.' In some areas of Japan they form the negative by removing the final u from the negative root and adding ari,u, which is then conjugated according to the required tense; e.g., aguezaru 'I do not offer,' aguezatta 'I did not offer,' aguezatta reba 'since I did not offer.' They also say aguezu xite 'by not offering.'[87]

The negative of the preterit is formed in like manner by adding the particle nanda instead of nu; e.g., aguenanda 'I did not offer,' zonjenanda 'I did not know,' vorinanda 'I did not descend.'

The pluperfect is formed by changing the last a of the preterit to e and adding the verb gozaru in the present and gozatta in the preterit; e.g., aguenande gozaru or aguenande gozatta 'I have not offered.' It is also formed by adding ide gozaru or ide gozatta instead of (27 nande gozaru; e.g., agueide gozaru or agueide gozatta 'I had not offered,' zonzeide gozaru [zonjeide ... ][88] 'I had not known,' vochiide gozatta 'I had not fallen.'

The negative future is formed by adding mai or maji to the affirmative root or the affirmative present tense; e.g., ague mai or aguru maji 'you will not offer.'

The imperative is formed by placing na after the present indicative; aguru na 'do not offer.'

It is also formed by placing na before the root and so after it; e.g., na ague so 'do not offer.'

It is also formed by placing na after the root; e.g., ague na 'do not offer,' mixe na 'do not show,' mesare na 'do not do.' The roots which end in xi or ji, but are in the first conjugation,[89] change the i to e to form the negative imperative; e.g., sǒ xe na or só maraxe na 'do not do that,' sǒ zonze na [só zonje na] 'do not think that.'

The optative is formed by placing negavacuva or avare before the negative imperative and placing caxi or gana after it; e.g., avare aguru na caxi 'oh! if only you would not offer,' and negavacuva na ague so gana with the same meaning.

The preterit of the optative is formed by placing mono vo after the negative future; e.g., aguru mai mono vo 'oh! if only you would not have offered.'

The negative subjunctive is formed by changing the u which ends the negative present to eba; e.g., agueneba 'since he did not offer.'

The preterit of the subjunctive is formed by adding reba to the negative preterit of the indicative; e.g., aguenanda reba 'since he had not offered.'

The future of the subjunctive is formed by adding qereba to the negative future; e.g., niguru mai qereba 'since he is not going to escape.'

The permissive subjunctive is formed by adding domo to the negative present after changing the final u of the verb to e; e.g., aguenedomo 'although he cannot offer.' They also say, and this usage is preferred, aguenaidemo or agueidemo 'even if he not offer.'[90]

The preterit of the permissive subjunctive is formed by placing redomo after the negative preterit; e.g., aguenanda redomo 'although he had not offered.' Aguenaidemo or agueidemo 'although he would not be allowed to offer,' is also said.

The permissive future is formed by adding qeredomo to the negative future; e.g., aguru mai qeredomo 'although he is not going to be allowed to offer.' (28

Another way of forming the permissive subjunctive is to place the particle tomo after the negative root; e.g., aguezu tomo 'although he is not going to be able to offer.' It is also formed by placing tote after the [negative] present subjunctive; e.g., agueneba tote. A third way is to add mamaio or madeio to the negative present; e.g., aguenu mamaio or aguenu madeio 'although he cannot offer.'

The preterit is formed by placing ritomo after the negative preterit; e.g., aguenanda ritomo 'although he had not offered.' It is also formed by placing tote after the negative preterit of the subjunctive; e.g., aguenanda reba tote, or better, aguenaidemo or agueidemo 'although he does not offer, or had not offered.'

The future is formed by placing tomo after the negative future; e.g., aguemai tomo 'although he is not going to offer,' vochiidemo 'although he will not fall.'

The present, preterit, and future infinitives are the present, preterit, and future negative indicative present tenses followed by coto or to; e.g., aguenu coto 'not to offer,' aguenanda coto 'not to have offered,' aguru mai coto 'not to be going to offer.'

Sometimes they use the negative present instead of the preterit in all the conjugations; e.g., mi maraxenu 'I did not see.'

The negative gerund in Di is the same as the negative present or future; e.g., aguenu or aguru mai 'of not offering.'

The gerund in Do is formed by placing ni after the negative root or the negative present tense; e.g., aguezuni or aguenuni 'by not offering.' The same meaning is obtained with agueide, aguenaide or aguezu xite.

The gerund in Dum is formed by placing tote or tame after the [negative] present or future of the indicative; e.g., aguenu tame or aguru mai tote 'in order not to offer.'

The present, preterit, and future participles are formed by adding fito or mono to the negative of the present, preterit, and future indicatives; e.g., aguenu fito 'he who is not offering,' aguenanda mono 'he who did not offer,' aguru mai mono 'he who will not offer,' aguenaide cara or agueide nochi 'after he had not offered, after they did not offer, or after it was not offered.'

(29

The Second Affirmative Conjugation

All the roots of the second conjugation end in i and form their present tense by changing i to u; e.g., iomi:iomu 'I read.' If the root ends in chi it changes its ending to tçu e.g., machi:matçu 'I wait.' If the root ends in xi it changes to su; e.g., coroxi:corosu 'I kill.'

For the preterit, if the root ends in ami it changes to óda; e.g., cami:códa 'I ate, or chewed.' If it ends in ebi or emi it changes to eôda; e.g., saqebi:saqeôda 'I am injured,' sonemi:soneoda [soneôda] 'I envied, or I had envy.' If it ends in obi or omi it changes to ôda; e.g., corobi:corôda 'he fell,' comi:côda 'it enclosed itself.' If it ends in umi it changes to únda [unda]; e.g., casumi:casunda 'it is cloudy.' The same change is made for roots ending in imi; e.g., canaximi:canaxúnda [canaxunda] 'he became sad.' If it ends in gui it changes to ida; e.g., fegui:feida 'it is divided.' Xini,uru has the preterit xinda 'he is dead,' and ini:uru has the preterit inda 'he left.' While in this respect they [xini and ini] are in the second conjugation, in the other tenses they are in the first. A root ending in chi or ri changes in the preterit to tta; e.g., mochi:motçu in the preterit becomes motta 'he received,' chiri,u:chitta 'it is scattered.' Those which end in xi or qi change to ita; e.g., coroxi,u:coroita 'he killed,' qiqi,u:qiita 'he heard,' xiqi,u:xiita 'he stretched it out.'

The future is formed by changing the i in which the root ends to ó, ǒzu, ózuru; e.g., iomó, iomǒzu, or iomózuru 'you will read.' If the root ends in chi it changes to tó; e.g., machi:mató 'I shall wait.' A root ending in xi changes to só; e.g., móxi,u:mósó 'I shall say, or speak.'

The imperative is formed by changing the i in which the root ends to e; e.g., iomi:iome 'read! or may you read.' If the root ends in chi it changes to te; e.g., machi:mate 'wait!' The imperative is also formed by changing the nu in which the negative present ends to ai; if you remove the nu from iomanu and replace it with ai it gives you yomai 'read!'[91] This is a common rule for the third conjugation, but this imperative is used only when addressing inferiors.

The future of the imperative is the future absolute; e.g., (30 iomó 'you will read.' This is used when addressing very low people.

The remaining tenses of the optative, subjunctive, gerund, and infinitive are formed in the same way and with the same particles as are used for each in the first conjugation.

The Second Negative Conjugation

The root of the negative second conjugation is made by changing i, in which the affirmative root ends, to azu; e.g., iomi:iomazu 'not reading.'

If the root ends in chi the present tense is formed by changing it to tanu; e.g., machi:matanu 'I do not wait.' If it ends in xi it changes to sanu; e.g., coroxi:corosanu 'I do not kill.' If they end in any other way change i to anu; e.g., corobi:corobanu 'I do not fall.'

The preterit is formed by changing the nu of the present tense to nanda; e.g., corobanu:corobananda 'I did not fall,' iomananda 'I did not read.' The other tenses are formed in the same way as the negative first conjugation.

The Third Affirmative Conjugation

The roots of the third conjugation end in ai, oi, or ui. Those ending in ai change to ó to form the present; e.g., narai:naró 'I learn.' Those ending in oi change to ô; e.g., vomoi:vomô 'I think.' Those ending in ui change to ú; e.g., cui:cú 'I eat.'

The preterit is formed by adding ta to the present tense; e.g., naróta 'I learned,' vomôta 'I thought,' cúta 'I ate.'

The pluperfect is formed by changing the final a of the preterit to e and adding the verb gozaru in the present and gozatta in the past, in the same way as we have described for the first conjugation; e.g., naróte gozaru or narǒte gozatta 'I have already learned.'

The future is formed by changing the final i of the root to vó, vózu, or vózuru; e.g., naravó, naravǒzu, or naravózuru 'I shall learn.' If the root ends in oi it is changed to vô, vôzu, or vôzuru [vǒ, vǒzu, (31 or vǒzuru]; e.g., vomoi:vomouô, vomovozu, or vomovôzuru [vomoi:vomovǒ, vomovǒzu, or vomovǒzuru] 'I shall think.'[92]

The imperative is formed by placing e after the root; e.g., naraie 'learn!' toie 'ask!' cuie 'eat!'[93] It is also formed by removing the syllable nu from the negative present tense and replacing it with the letter i; e.g., naravai 'learn!' tovai 'ask!' cuvai 'eat!' This form is used when addressing inferiors, as are those of the other conjugations.

The Third Negative Conjugation

The root of the third negative conjugation is formed by changing the i of the affirmative root to vazu; e.g., naravazu, tovazu, and cuvazu. The present tense is formed by changing the i to vanu; e.g., naravanu 'I do not learn,' tovanu 'I do not ask,' cuvanu 'I do not eat.'

The preterit is formed by changing the i of the root to vananda; e.g., naravananda 'I did not learn,' tovananda 'I did not ask,' cuvananda 'I did not eat.'

The pluperfect is formed by changing the final a of the preterit to e and adding the verb gozaru or gozatta; e.g., cuvanande gozatta 'I had not eaten,' or naravanande gozaru 'I had not learned.' The remaining forms are like the other conjugations.[94]

If the substantive verb is placed after the gerund in Do for all the affirmative and negative conjugations, it means that the action signified by the gerund is or is not done; e.g., aguete aró 'it will already be offered,' cono qió ga caite gozaranu 'this book is not written,' agueide arózu 'he will not yet have offered.' The substantive verbs are gozaru:gozaranu, voru:vori nai, dea or gia:devanai, aru:aranu or gozaranu, voru:voranu, and each of these verbs follows the general rules for its conjugation.[95]

If the substantive verb from any of the conjugations is placed after the infinitive form it means that whatever is signified by the infinitive is, was, or will be; or the negative thereof; e.g., aguru coto aró 'it will be that he offers,' that is to say 'he will offer,' naróta coto gozaru mai 'he will not learn.' All these substantive verbs are conjugated in the second conjugation to which they belong by virtue of the fact that their (32 roots end in i; ari,u:gozari,u.

The Conjugation of the Negative Substantive Verb

The negative substantive verb is nai, gozanai, or vori nai which means 'not to be.' Its root is naqu, gozanaqu, or vori naqu.

The preterit is formed by changing the i in which the present tense ends to c and then adding the preterit of ari,u which is atta; e.g., nacatta or gozanacatta 'he was not.' The other tenses are conjugated, as is ari,u, in the second conjugation.

The imperative is nacare, nanaiso, or nai na 'be not!'

The subjunctive is formed by changing the i of the present tense to qereba; e.g., naqereba or gozanaqereba 'if it be not.'

The permissive subjunctive is formed by changing the i of the present to qeredomo; e.g., gozanaqeredomo 'although he is not.'

The preterit of the subjunctive is formed by adding redomo to the preterit of the indicative; e.g., nacatta redomo 'although he was not.'

The substantive [verb] with the particle tomo is formed with the root; e.g., naqu tomo 'even if it were not.' The gerund is nó, nóte, naqu xite, or nacatte 'since it is not.' The remaining are formed as above, with the verb ari,u added, and are conjugated in the second conjugation.

Adjectives, when they do not precede verbs, are conjugated in the same way as the negative substantive verb. The adjectives, which have been said above to end in ai, ei, oi, ui, and ij, form their roots by changing the final i to qu; e.g., fucaqu is the root of 'deep,' ioqu the root of 'good,' xiguequ the root of 'dense,' varuqu the root of 'bad,' and vonajiqu the root of 'the same.'

The present tense is the form (vox) of the adjective itself; e.g., ioi 'good,' fucai 'deep,' varui 'bad,' vonaji 'the same.'[96]

The preterit is formed by changing the i of the adjective to c or q and adding ari,u. This form is then conjugated according to (33 the tense required by the sentence.

The permissive subjunctive with tomo is fucaqu tomo or fucai tomo 'although deep.'

The gerund in Do is fucóte 'since it was deep,' ióte 'since it was good,' canaxiúte [canaxúte][97] 'since it was sad,' xingueote [xigeôte][98] 'since it was dense.' It also takes the form of fucó xite, fucaqu xite, or fucacatte, or again iô xite, ioqu xite, or iocatte.

The adjectives which end in na are not conjugated. There is, however, a gerund in Do. For example, aqiracana has for its gerund aqiracani xite 'since it was clear,' and with the same meaning there is aqiraca de. Arisóna has arisǒni xite 'since it became apparent, or easy to believe.' Ióna has ióni as in ióni xite 'since it is in a good way, or since it has a good manner.' Cava ga fucóte vatarananda 'because the river was deep, I did not cross it,' xebǒte irarenu 'since it was narrow, he was unable to enter,' varúte cuvarenu 'it is inedible, or it cannot be eaten, because it is bad.' The other tenses of the adjective, as has been said, are formed with the verb ari,u and conjugated according to the requirements of the sentence. The negative conjugation is also formed with ari,u; e.g., if the root is fucacarazu the present tense is fucacaranu 'it is not deep.' The preterit is fucacarananda 'it was not, etc.'

The Conditional Particles[99]

There are five particles which make an utterance (oratio) conditional; naraba, ni voite va, raba, va, and ba. When the first two are placed after any verb, affirmative or negative, present, preterit, or future, the result is that the verb becomes conditional. For example; niguru naraba 'if you flee,' iôda ni voite va 'if you had read,' naravó naraba 'if you will learn,' cuvazu ni voite va[100] 'if you do not eat.' Sometimes voi [voite] is removed from ni voite va; agueô ni va 'if you would offer,' aguetaró ni va 'if you would have offered.' Sometimes voite [voite va] is removed, leaving only ni; e.g., mairó ni coso, nen goro ni mǒsǒzure (19) 'if I go, or if I shall have gone, I will tell him so in a friendly way,' xitaró ni coso, saisocu tçuqu maji qere (19) 'if I (34 had done it, it would not have been done with diligence and persuasion.'

The particle raba is placed after the preterit;[101] e.g., naróta raba 'if I would have learned,' naravananda raba 'if I would not have learned.'

The particle va is added to the negative roots of all three conjugations; e.g., aguezu va 'if I not offer,' iomazu va 'if I not read,' naravazu va 'if I not learn,' naqu va 'if it not be,' fucacarazu va 'if it be not deep.'

The particle ba has the same effect and is, like va, joined to the root; aguezũba, iomazũba, naravazũba.[102] If the particle ba replaces the negative zu, an affirmative conditional is formed; e.g., agueba, 'if I offer,' iomaba 'if I read,' naravaba 'if I learn,' and iocaraba 'if it be good.' The particle va is not only added to the negative roots of adjectives, but also to the affirmative; e.g., fucaqu va 'if it be deep,' vonajiqu va 'if it be the same.' Sometimes they use this expression to give the idea 'if it be not too troublesome, will you do it.' They also say aguemajiqu va 'if you would not offer.'

The particle ni voite va is joined to nouns in such a way as to substitute for the substantive verb; e.g., jójó ni voite va uqe toró (121v)[103] 'I shall get it, if it be very good, or the best,' curuxicarazaru gui ni voite va 'if it would not have been unpleasant, or if it had not been an unpleasant thing.'

If the particle saie is placed in a clause (oratio) in which there is already a conditional particle, it adds strength to the meaning; e.g., fune saie mairu naraba 'if only a ship were to come,' sonata saie vocutabire naku va (118) 'if he be not tired,' or it might be said 'as for me, or as far as it depends upon me, I am not tired.'

The particle saie alone sometimes forms a conditional; e.g., Niffon no xôcocu ni saie caióna coto gozaru fodo ni [Nifon ...] (118) 'if in the small kingdom of Japan things of this kind be found, or exist,' that is to say 'how much more there will be in a large one,' coco moto no tocai ni saie meivacu itasu ióni gozaru fodoni, etc. (118) 'on the voyage here I suffered very much, and so ...,' fito saie côquai suru mono vo iurusu ni ivan ia, Deus ni voite voia? [... va?] (118v) 'if one forgives one who repents, how much more will God,' core fodo xei vo iruru saie coto naricanuru ni; ucato xite va, incadeca banji canavǒzo? [... icadeca ...] (119) 'if gathering all one's strength this can be done only with difficulty, how could it be done if it were done without any strength?,' core saie xinicui ni 'if this be difficult to do,' fune de saie ioio tçuita (35 ni, cachi va nananaca naru mai [... nacanaca naru mai] (119v) 'if I arrived by ship with such difficulties, without doubt I could not have done it on foot.'

The Potential Verb[104]

The placing of the particle rǒ[105] after the present or future tense makes a potential; e.g., aguru rǒ 'he perhaps offers,' nigueozurǒ [nigueôzurǒ] 'he will perhaps escape.'

The preterit is made by changing ta to tçu and adding rǒ; e.g., aguetçurǒ 'he perhaps offered.' But if it is added to the negative preterit, the da must be changed to zzu; e.g., aguenanzzurǒ 'it has perhaps not been offered, etc.'

The present potential is also formed by adding arǒzu [mo arǒzu] or other future verbs to the infinitive; e.g., aguru coto mo arǒzu or ague mo xôzu 'he will perhaps offer.'

The preterit is formed by adding this same future to the preterit infinitive; e.g., agueta coto mo arǒzu 'he perhaps offered.'

The future is agueô coto mo arǒzu 'he will perhaps offer.' The negative is formed in the same way; e.g., aguenu, aguenanda, or aguru mai coto mo arǒzu 'he perhaps does not offer, he perhaps did not offer, or he will perhaps not offer.' When we wish to say that something is perhaps the case we use mono instead of coto; e.g., noxenanda mono de arózu 'they perhaps did not place it aboard ship,' iqi chigǒta mono de arǒzu 'they seem not to have met along the way,' moreqicoieta mono de gozarǒ ca to zonzuru 'I believe it is perhaps as it has been said.'

To express the meaning 'become' the verb nari,u is added to the adjective and then conjugated according to the requirements of the adjective taken adverbally; e.g., fucǒ naru 'it becomes deep,' varǔ natta 'it became bad.' Also they say fucǒ aru 'it is deep,' and sometimes fucǒ nai 'it is not deep.' They obtain this same meaning by conjugating nai according to the tense required by the sentence. They also use fucǒ nai coto mo arǒzu 'perhaps it will be that this is not deep.' (36

The Conjugation of Irregular Verbs[106]

The verb qi,uru 'to come' has quru 'I come,' qita 'I came,' côzu 'I shall come,' coi or coio 'come!' qitareba 'since he will have come, or would have come,' qitaredomo 'although he came.' The negative root is côzu [cozu] and the negative present is conu 'I do not come.' Mede, which is the root of the verb meaning 'to enjoy,' has a present in mezzuru and its gerund in Do is medete 'by enjoying.' Cui, which is the root of the verb meaning 'to be mournful,' has its present in cuiuru. Its gerund in Do is cuite 'by mourning,' its negative root is cuizu, and its negative present is cuinu. Araie, which is the root of the verb 'to be,'[107] has a present in araiuru or arǒru 'it is.' Furi, which is the root of the verb 'to become old,' has a preterit in furita 'he became old,' and a gerund in Do which is furite 'by becoming old.' Fe, the root of the verb meaning 'to cross over,' has a present in furu 'he crosses over,' and a preterit in feta 'he crossed over.' Tari,u is a verb which signifies that a thing is complete or entire. It has a present in taru 'it is complete,' a preterit in tatta 'it was complete,' and a future in tari maraxo [maraxô] 'it will be complete.' Its negative root is tarazu, its negative present is taranu, its preterit is tarananda 'it was not complete,' its future is taru mai 'it will not be complete,' and its imperfect subjunctive is taraneba 'since it has not been completed.'

The [negative] permissive is taranedomo, the infinitive is taranu coto, and the gerund in Do is taraide or tarazu xite. The verb taxi:tasu, which means 'to complete, or finish,' has a future in taxi maraxô 'I shall finish.' Tasanu is the negative present. Tari [Tarai] is the root of the verb tarǒ which has the meaning 'to be completed.' In the negative the preterit is taravananda 'it was not completed,' the subjunctive is taravaneba 'since it is not completed,' the permissive is taravanedomo, the infinitive is taravanu coto, and the gerund in Do is taravaide or taravaxu xite [taravazu xite]. Vocotari is the root of the verb vocotaru 'to be negligent.' It has an infinitive in vocotaru coto, a negative root in vocotarazu, and a negative present in voicotaranu [vocotaranu]. Voi is the root of a verb which has a preterit in voita 'he was old.' (37 Voitaru has the same meaning. The negative present is voinu and the gerund in Do is voite. Urei is the root of the verb 'to be sad.' It has a present in ureô, an imperative in ure io [ureie io][108] an infinitive in ureoru coto [ureôru ...].[109] Its gerund in Do is ureite. Tomi is the root of the verb tomu or tomeru 'to become rich.' Its preterit is tonda, its gerund in Do is tonde, and its negative root is tomazu. Saiguiri,u means 'to go before, or anticipate.' Its preterit is saiguitta and its gerund in Do is saiguitte.

The Aforementioned Verbs—Their Formation and Diversity[110]

In this language there are simple active, causative active, passive, neutral, and impersonal verbs.[111] All are conjugated by the three conjugations according to the way in which their roots terminate.

From certain adjectives come (procedo) certain verbs; e.g., from catai 'hard' comes catame,uru 'I make hard' which is active, catamari,u 'I become hard' which is neutral, catamerare,uru 'I am made hard' which is passive. From the adjective canaxii 'sad' comes canaximi,u which means 'to be sad.'

The causative verbs (verba faciendi facere) are formed with the particles saxe or xe. The first is added to the roots of verbs in the first conjugation,[112] while the second is [not] added to the roots of the second and third conjugation, but rather to the negative present after the nu has been removed; e.g., aguesaxe,uru 'I make him offer,' iomaxe,uru 'I make him read,' naravaxe,uru 'I make him learn.' All of these forms are in the first conjugation because the particles end in e. Sometimes, but rarely, saxe follows verbs of the second and third conjugation, but this is to make the verbs more elegant. It is used with the particle rare to honor someone; e.g., iomasaxe rare,uru ['he makes him read']. Padre va dojucu ni cathecismo vo naravasaxeraruru 'the priest orders his servant to learn his cathecism,'[113] mono no fon vo fito ni (38 iomasaxeraruru (162v.) 'he makes him read his book.'

The passive verbs (verba passiva) are made with the particles rare and re. The particle rare is added to the active verbs, according to the way explained before, after removing the nu from the negative form; e.g., aguerare,uru 'I am offered it,' iomare,uru 'I am read to,' naravare,uru 'I am taught.' They use these passive forms to mean 'to be read to by someone,' or 'to be, or not to be legible.' There are other passive forms which come from neutral verbs or verbs which have neutral meanings. They are also formed with the particles rare and re, but when they are so formed they do not govern the cases common to the passive (for which see below) but rather the cases of the verbs from which they come; e.g., from agari,u comes agarare,uru; and, since agari,u 'I ascend' requires the accusative, this verb also requires the accusative. For example; cono iama ie agararenu (102) 'it is not possible to climb this mountain, or this mountain is unable to be climbed,' xiro cara derarenu (102) 'it is not possible to leave the castle,' xebóte irarenu (102) 'it is not possible to penetrate because it is too narrow, or confined,' cono michi va arucarenu (102) 'it is not possible to walk this street,' natçu va coco ni irare mai 'it will not be possible to live here during the summer,' cono fude de va cacarenu (102) 'it cannot be written with this pen,' fima ga nóte cacarenanda (102) 'it cannot be written because of the lack of time,' cono bun ni coso cacaruru mono de gozare (69v) 'it will indeed be well written in this way,' axi ga itóte arucarenu (102) 'it is impossible to walk because of painful feet.' All of these passive verbs are of the first conjugation.[114] The neutral verbs (verba neutra) are those which have a neutral meaning; i.e., being initiated by oneself, and not by others. For example; ivo ga toruru 'the fish are caught,' caje ga toruru 'the wind ceases,' ito ga qiruru 'the string is cut,' ji ga iomuru (100) 'the letter [Chinese character] is well read,' aqi,u 'I am uncovered.' Qiri,u 'I cut' is active, qirare,uru is passive, and qire,uru 'I am cut' is neutral. This last form is used when a sword cuts well because it is sharp. Qiraxe,uru is a causative verb which means 'I make someone cut.' Ague,uru means 'I raise,' aguerare,uru 'I am raised' passively, aguesaxe,uru 'I make someone raise,' agari,u 'I am raised' neutrally, agarare,uru 'to be ascendable,' agaraxe,uru 'I cause something to be raised, or I cause him or it to raise himself or itself.' If to these verbs are added the particles which indicate honor (see below) other combinations are made. The adjectives when they are conjugated have a neutral meaning; e.g., fidarui 'I am thirsty,' fucacatta 'it was deep.'

The impersonal verbs (verba impersonalia) do not name or refer to a person; e.g., mi vo fatasu tomo itçuvari vo ivanu mono gia (39 (69v) 'even if one were to die, one should not tell a lie,' mono mo tabezu saqe mo nomaide ichinichi fataraqu mono ca? (69v) 'is it possible to work all day without eating anything or drinking any wine?', xujin no maie de sono ióna coto vo iú mono ca? 'is it possible to speak this way in front of ones lord?' Concerning the conjugations for these verbs they follow the rules according to their roots.

The root of any verb of whatever conjugation can be taken from its conjugation and changed to another conjugation by adding one of the particles of honor (honor). The resulting form will belong to the conjugation determined by the final letter of the particle. These particles are: maraxi,uru, ari,u, saxerare,uru, xerare,uru, nasare,uru, saxemaxi,u, tamai,ó, rare and re.[115]

The particle maraxi does not add honor to that which is talked about, but rather it is used to speak honorably to those in front of us. For example; cui,u means 'I eat,'[116] but a servant in front of his master will not say nezumi ga cúta 'the mice ate the cheese'; he will rather say nezumi ga cui maraxita. By itself cui,u is in the third conjugation because its root ends in ui, but if maraxi is added it becomes a verb in the first conjugation. When we refer to something about a people (natio) we do not show honor to that word but only pay attention to the person we are speaking to by adding maraxi or not. For example, if we are addressing an inferior we say Nan ban jin va core vo cuvanu; but if we are addressing a person of nobility we say Nan ban jin va core vo cui maraxenu 'Europeans do not eat this.' When ari,u is added to the root of any verb it attaches a middling (mediocris) degree of honor; e.g., modori aró ca? 'are you going to come back?' If you add vo in front of the verb it is honored moderately (satis); e.g., vomodori aró ca? 'Your Lordship is going to come back?' Tono sama vo xini atta toqi 'when the master died,' Deus cono xecai vo gosacu atta 'God created the world.'[117] We use these particles when we are speaking with honored persons whom we like and with whom we are on friendly terms.

The particle nasare,uru gives the highest (supremus), or moderately great (satis magnus) honor and is placed after the root of the verb; e.g., Deus cono xecai vo gosacu nasareta 'God created the world.'

The particles rare and re add a middling and not a great amount of honor to the verbs to which they are added. The particle rare is added mainly when we are talking about someone who is absent. It is formed by taking the nu from the negative present and replacing (40 it with this particle; e.g., aguerare,uru means 'I offer' when the person to whom the offering is made requires a middling degree of honor and respect (reverentia). This verb coincides letter for letter with the passive but is distinguished from it by the cases which it governs. The particle re is placed after verbs of the second and third conjugation only; e.g., iomare,uru 'to read' and naravare,uru 'to learn,' said of a person having a good reputation. We speak in this way when speaking of those who are equal to us and the servants of our lord, but not of other servants, or nobles.

The particles saxemaxi and xemaxi give the same degree of honor as ari,u and rare or re. These particles are added to the root of a first conjugation verb,[118] or to the negative present from which the nu has been removed; aguesaxemasu 'he offers.' Maxi,u [Xemaxi,u] is added to the negative present of the second and third conjugation verbs after taking away nu; e.g., iomaxemasu 'he reads,' and naravaxemasu 'he learns.'

The particles saxerare,uru and xerare,uru attribute great honor. The first is added to the negative present of verbs in the first conjugation[119] after the nu is removed, and the second is added to the [other] negatives in the same way; e.g., aguesaxeraruru 'I offer,' iomaxeraruru 'I read,' naravaxeraruru 'I learn.' Because these forms coincide letter for letter with the honorific causative, the particle ari,u may be placed after the verb and the particle vo may be placed before to avoid confusion; e.g., yomaxe aru [vo iomaxe aru] 'I read' and naravaxe aru [vo naravaxe aru] 'I learn.'

The passive verb, concerning which see below, also permits the particle saxerare,uru; e.g., viamavaresaxeraruru (99v) 'I am honored.'

The particle tamai,ó bestows the highest honor. We use it when speaking of God, saints, kings, or generals. It is added to the roots of verbs and conjugated in the third conjugation. It is placed after the root of the passive form when referring to God; e.g., Deus filio, umare tamǒ toqi 'when the son of God was born,' Deus agamerare tamǒ 'God is honored.'

The particle tate matçuri,u makes the meaning of the verb to which it is added humble. It is placed after the root of affirmative verbs; e.g., Deus vo gotaixet ni zonji tate matçuru coto va ichi sugureta jen gia 'to love God is the supreme virtue.' This particle permits some degree of honor if re is added to it after the final e [i] has been changed to a. Thus, when speaking of the saints in respect to God, one says, (41 Sancto Domingo, Deus vo gotaixet ni zonji tatematçurareta 'St. Dominic loved God.'

The particle maraxi [mairaxi][120] is able to elevate to honor the particle rare; e.g., tono iori cono coto vo Padre ni vataximairaxerareta 'the lord gave it to the priest.'

Certain Verbs Which of Themselves Indicate Honor[121]

Mesare,uru indicates any act which can be done, or which is properly done by a noble person (persona nobilis). This includes such things as eating, drinking, sailing, riding a horse, etc. Vôxerare,uru means that a noble person speaks. Vomaraxi,uru and vomaraxi ari,u mean that a noble person gives. Voxe,uru [Vôxe,uru] and vôxe ari,u mean that a middling person (persona mediocris) says or declares.

Verbs preceded by vôxe or mexi are given the same degree of honor by either; e.g., vôxe tçuqerare,uru 'I declare,' mexi tçucavare,uru 'I serve,' which have the same meanings as tçuqerare,uru and tçucavare,uru. To call someone we use coi with an inferior, with someone not quite as inferior we use iorai, with someone a little better we use vaxei, while vogiare is the superior way to call. Gozare, which means that your Lordship should come, and gozarǒ in the future tense are even more honorable ways to indicate the imperative. Voide nasarei, voide nasareô, or voide nasarei caxi mean 'might your Lordship come,' or 'Oh! would that your Lordship come.' Cudasare,uru means that a noble person gives. Tamavari,u means that a noble person gives to an inferior. Tamóri,u means that a middling person gives. Mizzu vo nomaxete tamǒre 'Give me a drink of water.' Cudasare,uru and tamóri,u mean that a humble person eats honoring his food. Coximexi,u and qicoximexi,u mean that a noble person eats and hears. Voboximexi,u and voboximesare,uru mean that a noble person thinks. Saxerare,uru means that a noble person does. Nasare,uru, asobaxi,u, and asobasare,iuru [asobasare,uru] mean that a noble person does what is proper to him such as hunting, writing, reading, or reciting. Ii,ú is used when the person addressed is humbler than the person or thing spoken to; (42 and mexi,u [móxi,u] means the person or the thing spoken to is addressed with honor. Therefore I would be incorrect were I to say mi ni móxe 'tell me!' I should rather say mi ni iie. I should not say tono ni iie 'tell it to the lord,' but rather tono ni móxe. Mairi,u means to go to a place to which honor should be shown; e.g., iglesia ie maire 'go to church!' Cure,uru and toraxe,uru mean to give in a way that humbles the person to whom the thing is given. Cui,ú means 'to eat' without showing respect (respectus); mexi,u also means 'to eat' but it is cultivated (urbanum); e.g., in addressing those deserving respect I will not say mexi vo cui maraxita but rather mexi vo tabe maraxita 'I ate.' Mairi,u or vomairari,u [vomairi ari,u] means that a middling person eats, while agaraxerare,uru and voagari ari,u are nobler ways to say this. Qiqi,u means to hear and uqetamavari,u and uqetamóri,u mean to hear in a way which honors the person heard; e.g., goiqen vo uqetamǒtta 'I heard your advice.' Móxi ague,uru means to speak in a way which humbles oneself while bestowing honor on the person being addressed. Móxi ire,uru means to speak between equals (equales). Chómon xi,uru means to listen to the word of God. Goranji,zuru or goranjerare,uru is to look at a noble thing. Xi,uru means to do in common way, itaxi,u means to do in a cultivated way, and tçucamatçuri,u means to do in a humble way.

Cautionary Remarks on the Conjugations of the Verb[122]

The particle nama placed before any verb in any tense means that the action has been done poorly or in an incomplete manner; e.g., nama aró 'I wash poorly,' nama iaqu 'I am incompletely broiled.'

If the particles tçui, cai, uchi, faxe, voi, ai, and tori[123] are placed in front of a verb they do not change the meaning, but they add emphasis; e.g., uchi cobosu has the same meaning as cobosu 'I pour,' faxe noboru is the same as noboru 'I ascend,' voxi comi,u is the same as comi,u 'I enclose,' ai cavari,u is the same as cavari,u 'I am changed,' tçui mavari,u is the same as mavari,u 'I go around,' and tori firogue,uru is the same as firogue,uru 'I spread out.'

The particle qitte is the gerund in Do for the verb qiri,u and when it is placed after the roots of certain verbs it gives them great emphasis; e.g., tanomiqitte 'imploring with great prayers,' vomoiqitte (43 'assuming a strong resolution.' The verbs tanomiqiri,u and vomoiqiri,u are also used.

The particle ma, when placed in front of certain verbs and nouns, gives them a stronger meaning; e.g., mamucai 'quite present,' macuroi 'completely black.'

The particle, or better root of the verb, macari,u, when placed before verbs of motion, makes the verbs modest and a bit more cultivated; e.g., macari noboru 'I ascend,' macari cudari,u 'I descend,' and macari i,iru 'I am present.'

The particle va placed after a sentence confirms what has been said before, as one might boast of making a prediction; e.g., fune va cuchinotçu ie iru va 'the ship calls at Kuchinotsu; and, if he says so or not, I say so,' aru va 'see if it is not as I have said.'

The particle aidani means 'between' in the sense of the time consumed in performing an action; e.g., agura aidani [aguru aidani] 'while offering,' iôda aidani 'while he read,' naravózuru aidani 'while he will learn.'

The particle ga means 'but;' só iú ga; nanto aró ca? 'they say so, but will it be so?' or 'it may be so, but I don't know for certain,' furi va furu mai ga, fune no dasu coto naró ca xiranu 'it's not raining any more, but I still don't know if it will be possible to launch the boat or not,' sono qinpen ni va gozaru mai ga; doco cara toraxeraruru zo? (20)[124] 'there are probably none in the neighborhood, or in the surroundings, so from where can they be gotten?'

The particle gotoqu is added to the present, preterit, and future tenses meaning 'in the same way'; e.g., coxiraiuru gotoqu 'in the same way as you furnish or carry out,' qiita gotoqu 'as I heard.' The form is sometimes ga gotoqu; e.g., móxita ga gotoqu 'as he said,' caracavózu ga gotoqu 'as in jest I will tease or laugh at.' This same meaning is obtained with iǒni; Nifon no catagui vo xirareta iǒni, vôxeraruru (122v) 'he speaks as one who knows the customs of Japan,'[125] mósu ióni 'as I say.' The particle furi is also used for the same purpose; e.g., toza no chijocu vo nogareôzuru tameni catana vo saita furi vo mixerareta (123) 'he showed himself wearing his sword in order to avoid the danger of infamy.' minu furi vo saxerareta (123) 'he made it known that he did not see.'

The particle saie is used [with the negative] to mean 'not at all'; e.g., mma saie nacatta (118)[126] 'there are not any horses at all,' cotoba saie xiranu mono (118) 'he does not know how to speak at all,' ji saie mixiranu mono 'he does not know any letters at all.' This same particle is used for emphasis; e.g., qiden to saie mǒxeba (119) 'it would (44 suffice if you were to say that you are,' Padre no tçucavaruru to saie móxeba 'if only he had said that this was useful to the priest,' or one might say 'it would suffice if, etc.'

The particle qere is a confirmative particle which comes at the end of a sentence with the meaning 'therefore'; e.g., maitta qere 'therefore he came,' sate só aru qere 'finally this is the situation.'[127]

The particle coso is of great importance among the Japanese for they use it first in an adversative sense (in sensu adversativo); core coso ió gozare [... iô ...] 'he is truly good.'[128] If the sentence in which this particle is found ends in a verb, that verb ends in e, as in the example above. If the verb is in the preterit it ends in re; e.g., yô coso gazattare! (117) 'you are welcome! (bene veneris!).' The exceptions to this rule are when the sentence does not end in a verb or an adjective; e.g., core coso xixó yô [... io] (116) 'he is a true teacher,' when after the particle coso there is in the sentence a gerund in e, a permissive in tomo, or a potential preterit in tçuró or zzuró;[129] e.g., vare coso iro iro xinro tçucamatçutte cutatireba toxiiórini nari maraxita [... cutabireba toxiiorini ...] (117) 'suffering many and various hardships, I became an old man,' vare coso corosaruru tomo 'if I be killed,' fara coso tattçurǒ (117) 'he was perchance quite angry,' sato chicaqereba coso fi ga miiure (116) 'the fire is already seen because the village is so near.' This [last] sentence ends in e because it does not contain an exception to the rule. Vóxerareta coto domo vo go côquai de coso gozarózure (97) 'without doubt you will do penance for what you have said,' catajiqe nǒ coso gozare (97) 'I congratulate you very much and thank you.' If someone says, 'Who did that?' the answer is Patre coso [Padre coso] 'the Priest did.' If someone asks, 'is there anyone who did that?' and if he does not hear, or does not understand the answer, and asks again, the person who answered will say Juan coso 'I have already said it was John.'

When someone is careless about what was said, or when he has not heard something and asks again, the answer is; e.g., tovoru na to iieba 'I have already told you not to pass through,' iome to iieba 'I have already told you to read,' Padre coso to iieba 'I have already told you that it is the Priest.'

Adding the particles maieni and saqini to the negative present tense makes the construction affirmative; e.g., iglesia ie mairanu maieni (141v) 'before he goes to church.' They are also added to the affirmative future tense; e.g., mairǒzuru tote no saqini 'a little before (45 I come.'

The particle tocoro signifies the time during which the action indicated by the verb is done. It is placed after the verb; taburu tocoro ni 'when I was eating,' tabeta tocoro ni 'after dinner,' tabeôzuru tocoro ni or tabeôzuru ni 'when I will be eating.' It also serves as a reduplicative particle which denotes a reduplication to the degree possible; e.g., jesu christo humanidad no von tocoro va (121v)[130] 'Jesus Christ in so far as he was a man,' vonore ga foxxezaru tocoro vo fodocosu coto nacare (121) 'as you do not want done to you, do not do to others,' fudai no tocoro vo vo iurusu [... tocoro vo iurusu] (120v) 'I gave him his freedom,' fito no acu no tocoro ni va dôxin xenu (121v) 'I do not consent to the sins of man,' utagó tocoro mo nai (120v) 'there remains no place to doubt, or for doubt,' nocoru tocoro mo nai 'it does not remain any more,' tçuini, sono tocoro ie mairózu (121v) 'finally he will arrive at this place,' fumbet ni voiobanu tocoro gia (121v) 'there are some things which are not understood, or to which one's comprehension does not extend,' nani mo nai tocoro vo iô qicoximexe (120v) 'will your Lordship kindly eat from this littleness which is nothing.' From these examples it is possible to see the force of this particle.

The particles tocoro, made, and made de gozaru are often added to an utterance (cadentia). They do not have any special meaning and are the same as coto de gozaru; e.g., naranu made or naranu coto de gozaru mean the same as naranu 'it is not possible.' Guijet tçucamatçurǒ to zonzuru coto va cacugo itasanu coto gia (10v) 'the breaking of this friendship does not come to mind.' Here the itasanu coto gia is the same as itasanu alone.

The particle madeio is used to confirm what has been said; e.g., caita madeio 'that which I wrote, I wrote.'

The particle toqi when added to the present tense, forms a preterit imperfect; e.g., jennin tachi va saigo ni voiobi tamó toqi va buji ni gozatta 'when saints arrive at the time of their death, they are peaceful and quiet.'

Changing the ta of the preterit to tçu and the da of the negative to zzu[131] the meaning becomes 'I do it this way and then that way'; e.g., mono vo caitçu, iôzzu, nando xite curasu bacari gia 'I spend my life reading, writing and doing other things,' tattçu itçu vocu iori zaxiqi ie ide zaxiqi iori vocu ie iri xitten battǒ xeraruru (11v) 'standing and sitting, entering and departing, he stands up and falls down.' The particle ri gives the same meaning after the preterit; e.g., xeqen no mono va netari voqitari nǒdari curasu bacari gia (11) 'men of the world spend their lives sleeping, arising, and drinking,' mazzu (46 ite niva vo mo facaxetari, cusa vo mo ficaxetari iroiro no xigoto vo ategǒte cosó mairǒzure [... coso ...] (10v) 'I shall go and sweep out the courtyard (atrium), pull up the weeds, and then having dispensed with these things I shall go,' ima cono io fuqe iuqeba nome ia, utaie ia fito bito motçu, utǒtçu sacamori suru (129) 'when it already is late at night, urging themselves on to drink and sing, the men enjoy themselves dancing and singing.'

The particle ie, which is the root of the verb ie iuru [ie:uru][132] 'I can,' signifies, when placed before negative verbs, that the action expressed by the verb cannot be done; e.g., ie iomanu 'I cannot read.' This particle is also placed after the infinitive; e.g., iomanu coto vo ienu 'I cannot read.' Iomi va ieide, or iomi mo ieide 'since I could not read, or not being able to read' is also said. The infinitive sometimes acts as a substitute verb (suppositum verbum); e.g., xinuru coto va vosoroxij 'it is terrible to die.'

The particle tai 'I want' is added to the roots of verbs and signifies the desire to do the thing indicated by the verb; e.g., mizzu vo nomi tai[133] 'I want to drink some water,' mizzu vo nomi tó gozaru or mizzu vo nomi tó zonzuru, but these last two forms are more noble. Here is an example of the noble form in the negative, tǒ mo nai; e.g., mizzu vo nomi tǒ mo nai 'I do not want to drink water,' and mizzu vo nomi tǒ mo gozaranu. Mairu tó mo zonjenu means 'I do not want to go.' When the particle tai is added to adjectives, or verbs indicating a sensory act (actionem sensitiuam) in the first person,[134] the i is changed to c; and the verb ari,u is added and conjugated in the tense required by the sentence; e.g., cuitacatta 'I wanted to eat.' If the verb is in the second or third person, the i is changed to g and again the verb ari,u is added, or an honorific particle depending upon what the person deserves, or without it as an absolute form. But if the person is inferior, the i is changed to c as said before.

The particle de sometimes gives a subjunctive sense when it is added to nouns; e.g., varãbe de xinda 'he died a child, or when he was a child,' vare ga buchófó de tofó mo gozanai (163v)[135] [... buchôfó ...] 'since I am clumsy and not careful, nothing will work out in a way that will be harmonious.'

The particle ió 'way' is added to the roots of verbs and also to the verbs themselves. When the root governs the genitive, the verb governs the same case; e.g., cono qiǒ no iomi ió va 'the way of (47 reading this book,' or cono qió vo iomu iǒ va. In the first sentence qiǒ is in the genitive with the particle no; in the second sentence it is in the accusative with vo because yomu governs this case. Tei signifies an extraordinary and marvelous way of doing something; e.g., machicanuru tei vo goron jerarei (122)[136] 'might your Lordship observe the way that they are expectant.' Also, arisama means 'way,' me mo aterarenu arisama gia 'it is a way, or a form (figura), which is unable to be seen.'

Sama indicates the time of the action of the verb to which it is added while governing the case required by the verb. It is added to the root of the verb; e.g., saqe vo nomi sama ni (105) 'when he actually drank the wine,' iado ie caieri sama ni (105) 'when he returned home,' fune iori agari sama ni (105) 'when he actually disembarked from the ship,' fune ni nori sama ni 'when he actually boarded the ship.'

When there are in a sentence two verbs whose actions form a single action, the first verb is put into the form of the gerund in Do; e.g., mizzu vo motte coi 'bring some water, or come bringing water,' fune vo voite coi 'bring the boat here, or come poling the boat,' core vo totte iqe 'take this, or carry this and go.'

The gerund in Do when added to verbs of asking, giving, or doing, means that one is asking to know or to acquire the thing which is indicated by the verb to which it is added; e.g., nifon guchi vo voxiiete cure io 'teach me Japanese,' sǒ voxerarete cudasaruru na [sǒ vôxerarete ...] 'your Lordship ought not say that,' Deus no coto vo catatte tamǒre 'do me the favor of relating to me those things which pertain to God.'

The particle mo placed after the gerund in Do, whether it ends in te or de, means 'although'; e.g., sǒ mǒxite mo 'although you say so,' ica fodo susumete mo, corobu mai 'no matter how much you try to persuade me, I will not deny the faith.' They also use sǒ mǒxeba atte mo 'even if you say that,' dǒxitemo cǒxitemo (134v) 'what ever you do.'

If the particle coso (see above) is added to the affirmative gerund in Do; and, if the sentence ends in this particle, the sentence becomes negative; e.g., mite coso 'I did not see anything,' atte coso 'there is no way.' But if the sentence does not end in coso, it becomes affirmative (48 and emphatic; e.g., mite coso gozare (116) 'I certainly saw.' The verb ends in e according to the rule explained above when the particle coso was being discussed.

When the negative gerund in Do, which ends in e, is followed by va, naranu, or canavanu it expresses necessity or the impossibility of the contrary; e.g., mairaide canavanu (106v)[137] 'it is necessary to go,' ivaide va no coto naredomo, nanto xô ca? 'and if the thing which is said to be necessary happens, what shall I do?' xitagavaide naranu 'it is necessary to obey.' The same meaning, but with less strength, is obtained with the future of the affirmative or negative infinitive and the permissive subjunctive in domo; e.g., mairǒ coto de gozatta redomo (18)[138] 'although I should have gone,' mairu mai queredomo [... qeredomo] (18)[139] 'although I should not be going,' mairǒ coto de gozanacatta redomo (18) 'although I did not have to go.' They also use the negative gerund in Do to obtain the meaning of 'if not'; e.g., òracio vo mǒsaide cú na 'do not eat unless you have said your prayers.'

The gerund in e indicates an action already done; e.g., mexi cúte coi 'come after eating!' cono qió ga caite gozaru 'this book was written,' chichi ni fumi vo cacaide cuiaxiú gozaru [... cuiaxú ...] 'I am ashamed that I did not send a letter to your father,' cono qió ga caite gozaranu 'this book was not written.'

The particle nagara, when added to the root of a verb, forms a gerund in Do if it is followed by a verb indicating a repugnant or contrary action; e.g., toganin Deus iori bacutai no go von, o uqetatematçuri nagara; caietta somuqi tatematçuru [... go von vo uqe ...][140] 'sinners receiving, or even if sinners receive, benefits from God, they will offend him rather than be grateful,' Jesu Cristo Deus de gozari nagara, fito ni taixite cruz ni cacaraxerareta 'while Jesus Christ was a God, he was crucified for man.' Nagara is also added to nouns; e.g., quantai nagara (136v) 'although there was some lack of education,' sannin nagara (137) 'three at the same time, or even if there are three' aqiraca nagara (136v) 'although he is famous.' In this instance aqiraca na loses its na as do all the other adjectives that end in na.

The particle iasui is added to the roots of active and passive verbs to form the supine in Tu; e.g., iomi iasui 'easy to read,' corosare iasui 'easy to be killed.' The same thing is achieved by the following way of speaking; iúte va vosoroxij 'it is terrible to say,' mite va (49 fuxiguina 'it is admirable to see,' iú vo mo vosoroxij 'it is terrible to say.'

The Adverbs

First Section[141]

Adverbs are formed from adjectives ending in ai by changing the ai to ó; e.g., fucó 'deeply,' for those ending in oi by changing the oi to ô; e.g., caxico [caxicô] 'wisely,' for those ending in ei by changing the ei to eô; e.g., xigueo [xigueô] 'densely,' for those ending in ui by changing the ui to ú; e.g., aiǔ 'in danger,' and for those ending in ij by changing the ij to iú; e.g., cavaiú 'unhappily.'

Adverbs of Place[142]

The interrogative pronouns are eight in number; izzucu[?], izzucata[?], donata[?], doco?, dochi?, dochira?, dono tocoro[?], and dono fǒ?, and they signify 'which place?' To these adverbs are added the particles va, no, ni, ie, vo, cara, and iori according to the case required, such as 'from where,' 'whither,' 'through which place,' 'in what place,' etc. Made can also be added to them with the meaning of 'to the limit of which'; doco made ie iqó ca[?] 'up to where will you go?' The interrogative particle, ca? or zo[?], is added to these questions but it is better to use zo rather than ca in sentences with an interrogative particle; e.g., izzuru ie maitta zo 'where did you go,' dono tocoro vo tovotta zo 'at which place did you cross,' doco iori itta zo 'through where did he enter,' dochi cara qita zo? 'from where did he come?', donata va Pedro no iado zo[?] 'which is Peter's house?', doco ni voru zo[?] 'where, or in what place is he?' One may respond in many ways; cono tocoro, coto moto, [coco moto], core, conata, cochi, cochira, coco, cocora, cono cata, cono fǒ, which mean 'here (hic)'; sono tocoro, soco moto, sore, sonata, sochi, sochira, soco, socora, sono cata, sono fǒ (50 which mean 'there (istic)'; ano tocoro, asoco moto, are, anata, achi, achira, asoco, asocora, ano cata, anofó, which mean 'there (illic).' To these particles are added the case particles. The interrogative adverbs with the case particles and mo added mean 'everywhere,' 'through every place,' or 'to every place,' e.g., dono tocoro ie mo tovorǒ 'I shall go everywhere,' doco ni mo 'everywhere,' doco cara mo 'from everywhere.' However, if, instead of mo, nari tomo is added the meaning becomes 'any place,' in a distributive sense; e.g., doco ie nari tomo mairǒ 'I shall go to each place individually.' The same meaning is obtained by doco zo with the case particles placed between the doco and the zo; e.g., doco ni zo aru fodo ni 'if someone is any place.' Coco caxico means 'here and there.' Doco mo caxico mo means 'the whole place.' The case particles are placed before mo; e.g., doco ni mo caxico ni mo 'in the whole place,' but after the adverb; e.g., coco caxico ni 'here and there,' coco caxico ie doco, caxico iori [coco caxico ie 'to here and there,' coco caxico iori 'from here and there'], etc.[143]

The particle uie means 'above.' The genitive case is placed before it; e.g., fandai no uie ni voqe 'place it on the table,' cono uie va gozaru mai 'it will not be above this,' that is to say 'it will not be better than this,' sono uie ni 'about that,' sono uie no sata vo catari are 'tell me about that,' core va izzure iori mo uie de gozaru 'one will not discover anything better than his,' that is to say 'this is the best.' Xita means 'below.' It governs the genitive; e.g., fandai no xita ni voqe 'place it under the table,' micotoba no xita iori (141v) 'when the king finishes speaking,' voxita vo cudasarei (141v) 'would your Lordship be so kind as to give to me that which remains of your drink.'

The particle soba means 'side' and governs the genitive; e.g., fito no soba vo fanaruru 'he separates himself from the side of another.'

The particle maie means 'before' and governs the genitive; e.g., fito no maie vo tovoru 'I pass in front of someone else,' cacugo no maie (141v) 'according to ones disposition,' funbet no maie (141v) 'as I believe, or think, or according to the sense (iuxta sensum).'

The particle mavari means 'around' and governs the genitive; e.g., iglesia no mavari ni tçuchi vo nague sutçuru na 'do not put earth around the church.'

The particle uchi means 'within,' and the noun which precedes it must be in the genitive; e.g., iglesia no uchi 'in the church,' ano fito va, fito no uchi de va nai 'that man is not among men,' that is (51 to say 'he is not a man,' futacuchi cúta coto va, cúta uchi de va nai (142v)[144] 'to eat two mouthfuls is not to eat.'

The particle foca means 'outside,' and the genitive is placed before it; e.g., igelsia no foca ni 'outside the church,' foca ie iqe 'go out, or go outside.' Sometimes the genitive particle is replaced by iori; e.g., Deus vonago ichinin iori foca tçucuri tamavanu (142v)[145] 'God did not create but one woman,' that is to say 'he created just one,' Tengu fito ni acu vo susumuru iori foca va, nai (142v) 'the Devil does nothing if he is not persuaded by man to sin,' goxǒ vo tasucaru tame baptismo vo sazzucaru iori foca bechi no michi ga nai 'there is no other way to save men than by baptism,' that is to say 'without baptism we cannot be saved.' Deus no gracia iori foca 'without the grace of God.'

The particle naca means 'in the middle.' It is used when the material is either dense or defuse; e.g., qi no naca ni 'in the wood,' fito no naca ni 'among the men.'

The particle nacaba means 'in the midst of things' when referring to a sequence. It follows the genitive; e.g., dangui no nacaba ni 'in the midst of the sermon,' sore vo qijte, nacaba va vosore; nacaba va aqirete ita (145v) 'hearing that, he feared and was afraid,' that is to say 'he spent most of his time being afraid.'

The particle ato means 'behind' and governs the genitive; e.g., sonata no ato cara mairǒ 'I shall come after you' that is to say 'I shall follow you.'

The particle vaqi means 'near' and governs the genitive; e.g., Pedro no vaqi 'near Peter,' misa no vaqi 'the mass is ended,' cono vaqi 'in the last few days.' All of these adverbs require after them the cases that are required by the verb which follows.

Adverbs of Interrogation and Response[146]

There are many ways to ask 'why?' or 'for what reason[?]'; e.g., najeni[?], najoni[?], nani xini?, nani tote ca?, nani no iuie ni?, nanto xita coto ni?, nani no xisai ni iotte?. The question 'how?' is said; nanto xite?, nanto iǒ ni[?], icani to xite? The answer is 'because' or 'for the reason that'; e.g., sono iuie va, najeni to iúni. 'Because' is also said; tocoro de, fodo ni, ni iotte, or sacai ni. The first expresses (52 the greatest degree of causality, the second not so much, and the third the least.

Uie va means 'since (cum or si quidem)'; e.g., toganai uie va qizzucai ga nai (40v)[147] 'I am not afraid because I have no fault.' The same meaning is achieved by the particle cara; e.g., caiǒ ni iro vo misuru cara va; cacusu coto va iranu 'since you have thus shown your feelings (iro), you can't hide them.' 'Since (si quidem)' means approximately the same as toqi va and xicaru toqi va. Sari nagara means 'but,' sari tote va means 'until,' saru tote va means 'since the thing is this way,' saru tote va, qicoienu coto gia 'since it is so, it is unbearable.'

Adverbs of Time[148]

One asks 'when' with itçu or itçugoro. One asks 'from what day' with icca saqi or icca maie, 'from what month' with icutçuqi saqi, and 'from what year' with nannen maie. Usually ni is added when it is required by the verb, and the interrogatives ca or zo are always put at the end of the sentence, with zo preferred.

One answers 'now' with ima or tada ima, and 'already' with mǒ, e.g., mǒ iqe 'be already gone!' 'Sometimes' is said with toqi ni iotte or jibun ni iotte. 'Afterwards' is nochi. Sore cara or sore iori means 'after that,' core cara or core iori means 'after this,' and are iori or are cara means 'after that.' 'Immediately' is said with iagate. 'Afterwards' or 'again' is ima iori nochi, ima iori xite va, or ima iori igo. 'This morning' is said with qesa. Connichi or qio [qiô] is 'today,' and asu or miônichi [miónichi][149] is 'tomorrow.' 'Tomorrow morning' is asa, axitatô, or asatocu, and 'tomorrow night' is mionia [miǒia]. 'Before' is ijen or saqi ni. 'Yesterday' is qinô or sacujit. 'The day before yesterday' is vototoi or futçuca saqi ni. 'Several days in the past' is cono giǔ. Cono fodo and xenjit have the same meaning, as does xendo. Condo means 'several days in the future.' 'The day after tomorrow' is asatte or miógonichi. 'Three days hence' is xiasatte or miómiógonichi. Qiônen [Qionen] or cozo means 'last year.' 'This year' is cotoxi. 'Two years ago' is vototoxi or votodoxi. 'Three years ago' is sanuruvotodoxi [sannuru votodoxi].[150] 'Immediately' is tachimaqi [tachimachi] (53 or socuij ni [socuji ni]. Sunavachi is also 'immediately.' Tanteqi is 'in a moment.'

Itçumade? means 'until when?' Itçumademo means 'always.' Itçu cara means 'after what time.' Itçu iori means 'from what time.'

Adverbs of Negation[151]

Iia or iia [iia iia][152] means 'not.' Só devanai means 'it is not so.' Iccana or iccanagueni means 'by no means,' iume iume means 'not even in a dream,' sarani, ichiien, catçute, or catçute motte means 'in no way,' and io, iomo, or iomo iomo means 'without thinking'; e.g., catçute mairu mai 'in no way shall I come,' iomo só va gozaru mai (117v) 'it will in no way come to mind why it will be so.' When affirmative verbs are added to these adverbs they become negative; e.g., iomo iomo to mǒxitareba vo mairi atta (117v) 'although you said you would not go, you went,' io mairó 'in no way shall I go.'

Adverbs of Affirmation[153]

Nacanaca means 'it is so,' vó means 'so,' when one agrees. Gueni or gueni gueni means 'it is thus'; e.g., gueni gueni só mo aró 'without doubt the situation is thus.' Chódo means 'at all.' Saiǒni, sono bun, sono gotoqu, sǒ de gozaru, sore sore, massǒ gia, or xicato means 'it is so.' Mottomo means that something is reasonably said. Guioi no gotoqu means 'as your Lordship believes, or says.' Mochiron indicates that a thing does not come in to doubt or discussion. Nacanaca naru coto de gozaranu means 'truly it is not possible.' Nacanaca no coto indicates a thing with which it is possible to agree. Macotoni means 'truly,' as does xinjit or xinjitni. Xeimon means 'I affirm by oath.' Isasaca or isasaca motte means 'not even a little,' and issai or ixxet means 'in no way, or by no means,' and when these particles are added to the affirmative they mean 'truly.'

(54

Comparative Adverbs[154]

Iori, iori mo, and iori mo navo mean 'more' in a comparison. The person compared is in the nominative case and the person to whom he is compared is in the ablative with one of the particles which we have listed above; e.g., Pedro va juan iori mo gacuxó de gozaru 'Peter is wiser than John,' soco ie noboru iori va; mairanu ga maxi gia 'it is better not to go than to climb up there.' Gotoqu, mama, and iǒni are adverbs of similitude (adverbia similitudinis) and require the genitive for the thing with which the comparison is made. If the particle is preceded by a verb, no genitive is required; e.g., no iama ie nari tomo qitai mama ni qite, nurureba, nugui suteraruru (124v) 'if they were to go to the mountains or the plains wearing such clothes as they want to wear, they will have to take them off when they become wet on account of the water.' Vomô mama ni, vomô gotoqu, and vomô iǒni, mean 'as I think,' cono mi no mama ni 'according to his desires, or his pleasure.' Fodo means 'to such a degree as (tantum),' or 'just as (quasi)'; e.g., qifen ano fito fodo no gacuxó de gozaru[155] 'you are as wise as he,' fara ga cudaru fodo ioi 'he will recover as soon as he has a bowel movement,' michi vo aruqu fodo cutabiruru (123v) 'as I walk so I get tired,' acai fodo ioi 'the redder the better,' xinuru fodo no vazzurai de va nai 'this disease is not strong enough to cause death,' fune ni mesaruru fodo naraba vare mo norózu (124) 'if Your Lordship would take up the task of boarding the ship, so shall I,' tamexi mo nai fodo ni atta to mǒsu (124v) 'they say it was as if it had never been,' voquru fodo araba sore ie mairǒzu (124) 'if I am able to arrive at the state where I can get up from bed, I shall come to you,' chicara no fodo vo mite 'seeing the degree of his strength,' fodo nó tçuita 'he arrived in an instant,' core fodo 'as this,' sore fodo 'as that,' are fodo 'as that,' vovoi fodo 'while more,' sucunai fodo 'while less.'

(55

Superlative Adverbs[156]

Uie means 'the highest'; e.g., christian no voxiie va izzure iori mo uie de gozaru 'the doctrine and faith of Christianity are supreme, or above all,' cono saqe no uie va nai 'there is no better wine than that.' Ichi or daiichi means 'supreme, or unique'; e.g., gacuxǒ no uchi ni Sancto Thomas daiichi de gozatta 'among wise men Saint Thomas was the best,' core va are iori uie 'this is superior to that.' The particle xita has the opposite meaning of 'inferior, or the lowest'; e.g., xiqitai va anima iori xita de gozaru (141) 'the body is inferior to the soul.'

Adverbs of Intensity and Exaggeration[157]

Ichidan, chicagoro, and iccǒ mean 'intensely (valde)'; e.g., chicagoro no vo cocoro gaqe de gozaru 'this is the greatest care and diligence,' sore va icco varui coto gia 'this is extremely bad.' Bexxite means 'chiefly,' tori vaqe means 'especially,' coto no foca means 'rarely, or extraordinarily,' icanimo means 'intensely,' and amarini means 'too much.' As has been said, adverbs are formed from adjectives according to the rules above, and these adverbs mean adverbially what the adjectives mean adjectivally; e.g., fucai means 'deep,' and fucó means 'deeply.' Icani mo xizzucani means 'extremely quietly,' tani coto ni means 'extraordinarily,' and xitatacani or guiósanni means 'in a way that is to be feared' that is to say 'too much.' See the dictionary.[158]

Accumulative Adverbs[159]

Voxinabete means 'universally'; sôbet means 'generally,' as do tçuneni and sojite [sôjite]; feijeini means 'regularly'; and voioso, tabun, vocata, ioppodoni mean 'for the most part,' and qeccu or caiette (56 means 'after all.' Tennen means 'perhaps,' as do xijen and icasama. Sadamete means 'probably,' canarazu means 'without doubt,' moxi xijien [moxi xijen] means 'perhaps,' xǒtocu means 'naturally,' jinen means 'by chance,' xidai vidai ni or jen jen ni means 'gradually,' and vonozzucara means 'by oneself.'

Adverbs that Conclude and Claim Attention[160]

Ficqiǒ and tçuini mean 'finally, or in conclusion.' Tçugǒ means 'in summary.' Nǒ nǒ means 'is it not so?' e.g., nǒ nǒ icani qicaxeruru ca? 'do you hear me then?' Moxi[161] means 'ho there (heus),' but it is an elegant word; e.g., moxi Padre sama 'ho there, Reverend Father.' Iare also means 'ho there,' but with inferiors; e.g., iare tarǒ quaja to iieba 'saying "Ho there, Tarōkaja."' Iai means 'ho there' with very low people; e.g., iai sochi ga motta mono va nani zo? 'hey! what is it that you bring?' Ia has the same meaning; e.g., ia vo tono bara domo va nani vo savagu zo? (128) 'hey! you soldiers and good men, why do you quarrel?' The particle ai has the same meaning but it is placed after the sentence; e.g., izzure mo mina qiqe ai (129) 'hey! all of you listen.'

The particles ca and zo, as has been said above, are used as interrogatives. The particles ia and caia have the same function but they are more humble; e.g., are va tare caia? 'who is he?', core ia[?] 'this?', io fuqete tare ca va tazzuneô zo? (89v) 'when it becomes late at night, who will be able to visit?', sore de arǒ ca to iú coto gia 'I said, "will it be this?"'

No? asks for agreement; e.g., gozarǒ ca no? 'will he come?'[162] mairǒ to voxerareta no? [... vôxerareta no?] 'did he say that he will come?' no Pedro dono? 'isn't that so, Peter?' Na[?] means the same thing, but it is used with inferiors; e.g., sǒ qiita na? 'didn't you hear so?' Sometimes, in a sentence containing zo, baxi, which is a dubitive particle (particula dubitandi), is placed; e.g., nanto xita xisai de baxi gozaru zo? (122v)[163] 'for what reason did this happen?', sate nanto iú voqiacu de baxi gozaru zo[?] (123) 'what is the name of your guest?', goiô baxi gozaru ca? 'isn't there something of use to you?'

Io and zo strengthen or give cadence to the sentence; e.g., caita zo 'he truly wrote,' maitta io 'he certainly came,' sono toqi vare (57 va ichi dan varui tçucai vo xiraruite gozaru io [... siaruite ...] (95) 'at that time I was following bad advice.' Bacari means 'only, or in only one way,' sore ni caguitte means 'that only,' core ni caguirazu 'not only this.' Bacari also means 'more or less'; e.g., fiacu bacari 'there were a hundred,' fiacunin bacari corosareta 'about one hundred men were killed.' Nó, nóte, naqu xite, and naqute mean 'without'; e.g., raxxi mo nó 'without reason or order,' cacugo nó 'without any preparation.'

The adverbs of sound (adverbia sonus) are many and vary in accordance with the way that the Japanese perceive the sound. The particle to is added to them; e.g., va va to xite 'vociferously saying wa wa,' and if they add meqi,u, it means to make even a louder noise; e.g., va meqi,u 'to shout saying wa.'

The Case Prepositions[164]

Tame or ni means 'concerning';[165] e.g., sonata no tame 'for you (tibi).' It governs the genitive which precedes it; nan no tame 'for what,' nani ni naru ca? 'for what is it?', nani ni xô ca? 'what do you do that for?', nani no iô ni tatçu ca? (171v) 'for what is it needed, or useful?', maitte no iô va? (130) 'what's the use of going?'

Tai xite means 'on account of' or 'against'; e.g., tengu ni tai xite teqito 'to fight against the devil, or resist him,' Deus ni tai xite cuguio vo coraiuru 'I endure the pain (labor) because of God.' Uie iori also means 'because'; e.g., von jifi no uie iori (167) 'because of his mercy.'

Ni iotte signifies the reason for which; e.g., Deus iori fito no jento acu ni iotte go fempô vo ataiesaxerareozu [... ataiesaxerareôzu] (146v) 'God gives to man according to his virtues and vices.' This form is derived from the verb iori,u.

Ni tçuite means 'around, or about' and is derived from the verb tçuqi,u; e.g., core ni tçuite, core ni tçuqi, or core ni tçuqete means 'about that.' Sono gui ni voite va zonjenu (120) 'I do not know anything about this matter,' Vôxe va mottomo naredomo vagami ni totte va canai gatai (120) 'Your Lordship speaks well but what concerns me is that (58 it is difficult to do.' Dai quan ni itatte va ichinin bacari sadame io (120)[166] 'decide that which concerns the steward only.' Itatte and totte[167] are the gerunds of verbs just as the preceding. They also say Padre coto va 'the things belonging to the priest,' varera coto va 'about my things, or those things which belong to me.' Xitagatte or xitagǒte means 'near' and is the gerund of the verb xitagari,u or xitagai,ó. As with the other verbs it governs the dative case; e.g., guioi ni xitagatte or xitagǒte 'according to Your Lordship's understanding.' Xidai has the same meaning; e.g., conata xidai 'according to your wishes.' Sometimes it is added to the roots of verbs; e.g., mairi xidai 'according to when he comes, or according to his coming.'

Ni indicates the place in which. Ni voite has the same meaning but indicates permanence; e.g., fatto va fuximi ni voite vôxeidasareta 'he established the law while he was in Fushimi,' Bungo funai ni itatte 'in the city of Funai in the kingdom of Bungo,' iglesia ni uoru 'he is in church.'

De indicates the place of an action; e.g., michi de Pedro ni vǒta 'I met Peter in the street.' The same particle de, together with vo motte, indicate the instrument with which an action is done; e.g., bo vo motte Pedro vo uchi coroita 'he killed Peter with a stick,' Padre sama catarareta de navo qicoieta 'from what the Reverend Father told me, it became easier to understand,' necqi de xinda 'he died of a fever.'

Cara or iori indicate the place from which; e.g., iglesia cara 'from church.' They also say fune cara maitta 'he came by ship' and cachi cara maitta 'he came on foot.' Fune de maitta is the same as fune cara maitta and fune ni notte maitta. Fana cara me cara miguruxij mono gia 'it is unpleasant to the nose and the eyes.' Iori indicates the place through which; e.g., sama iori faitta 'he entered through the window.'

Tomo ni means 'at the same time'; e.g., sonata to tomo ni mairǒzu I shall go at the same time as you,' mǒsu to tomo ni 'at the same time as he spoke.'

Ie indicates the place to which; e.g., achi ie mairǒ 'I shall go directly to court (curia),' miiaco no cata ie noboru 'he went up to court' and also miiaco no fǒ ie noboru. They also say miiaco no iori, miiaco sama, or miiaco no gotoqu noboru, but this is not a good way of speaking and is more characteristic of a rustic (rusticus).

De indicates the material from which; e.g., tçuchi de cavara (59 vo tçuquru 'to make bricks out of earth or mud,' nande core vo tçuquru ca? 'from what is this made?'

Uie means 'concerning'; e.g., zuibun codomo no uie vo fito ni mo naxi marasuru iǒni to cocoro gaqe marasuru 'with great diligence I took care of my sons so as to make them men.' Sonata no fiquan no vo saiban mesare io [... no uie vo ...] (141) 'take care of your servants.'

Made means 'until'; asu made 'until morning,' inochi vo uxinǒ made aru mai 'he will not lose his life, or he will not arrive at the loss of his life,' sore made vomoi mo ioranu gui gia 'it will not come to my mind,' cocoro zaxi areba canavanu made mo xei vo iruru 'when something is wished for, one uses his strength up to the point of impossibility,' mǒsu made mo nai 'it is not necessary to say,' cono tocoro made maitta 'I came to this place.'

Conjunction and Separation[168]

To means 'and'; e.g., Pedro to juan to Nagasaqi ie ita 'Peter and John went to Nagasaki,' core to, are to vo toru 'I take this and that.' Mo has the same meaning; e.g., Pedro mo juan mo Nagasaqi cara modotta 'Peter and John returned from Nagasaki,' naqu mono mo ari, varó mono mo aru 'there are those who cry and those who laugh. Mo is often placed before negative verbs; e.g., nanigoto mo gazaranu ca? 'is that not something new?'

Mata means 'and,' whether it is found between nouns or verbs. Ca means 'or'; e.g., Pedro ca; juan ca coi to iie 'tell Peter or John to come.' Arui va also means 'or'; e.g., arui va Pedro, arui va juan 'either Peter or John,' arui va iomu, arui va caqu 'I either read or write.' Moxi va means 'if in fact,' and it is used in the middle of a sentence; e.g., moxi va cane ga nai naraba 'if in fact you were to have no money.'

Mata va is used to bind the sentences more tightly together (ad orationem contexturam). It means 'besides that, or besides'; e.g., (60 arui va iamai ga vocoru ca, mata va isogui no fumi qitaru ca etc. [... ca, etc.] (135) 'either some sickness occurs, or besides that some urgent letter arrives.'

Xicareba means 'since things are this way,' sari nagara means 'but,' sǒ aru tocoro de means 'since it is thus,' saraba means 'since it is so,' and sareba sareba means 'since then.' Ca? means 'if'; e.g., maitta ca mi io 'see if he came, or went,' maitta ca xiranu 'I don't know if he went.' Iara means 'if,' but distributively (divisive); e.g., fito iara chicuxǒ iara xiranu 'I don't know if it's man or beast,' nani iara to mǒxita 'I wonder what he said.'

Some disjunctive and emphatic particles are formed from nanica and tocacu with the addition of other particles; e.g., nani ia ca ia? 'which thing?' The same meaning is expressed by nani iara ca iara? and nanto iara cato iara? Nanto xite, cato xite means 'how,' nanto mo cato mo means 'in no way,' and nani mo ca mo means 'nothing.' Nanigoto mo cagoto mo, mina içtuvari naru zo [... itçuvari ...] 'when all is said and done they are all lies.' Nani no ca no, and nanto xite, cato xite are ways to excuse oneself. Nani no ca no to iúte means 'saying this and that.' Domo como means 'in whatever way it is,' as does dǒ xite mo cǒ xite mo. Dǒ xite cǒ xite means 'doing this and that differently.' Dǒ xô cǒ xô means 'I shall do this and that.'

Tomo cacumo means 'all the same,' as do toni cacuni, tonimo cacunimo, and totemo cacutemo. Core to ij; care to ij means 'saying this and that, or making excuses.' Care core means 'this and that,' coco caxico means 'here and there (hic and illic).' Vomoxirô, vocaxu[169] [vomoxirovocaxǔ] is used when accommodating oneself almost to flattery.

If the particle motte is added to the particles catçute, isasaca, tomoni, nani, and nani nani iori [... and nani iori] it adds strength and force; e.g., catçute motte sǒ aru mai 'the situation will not be this way at all.'

Interjections[170]

Sate, sate sate, [satemo,] and satemo satemo are interjections of admiration; e.g., satemo Deus no voqinaru vonjifi cana 'oh! great mercy of God!'

Avare is the interjection for pity; e.g., avare mutçucaxij io no naca cana 'oh! world replete with misery!'

Ha![171] is the interjection of penetence; e.g., ha faxi demo (61 vomoxiroi ga; tocoro ni iote qicoie canuru [... ni iotte ...] (127v) 'ah, the workmanship of the sound and the harmony of the singing is most graceful, but it is not able to be heard well.'

Iara! is the interjection for joy and pain; e.g., iara iara medeta ia (128) 'oh! how much I rejoice.' Ia is also used; e.g., satemo iiaxii iatçubara ia (129)[172] 'oh! how vile and despicable,' gongo dǒdan fuxigui na xisai cana (128v) 'oh! how rare and ridiculous a reason.' Iei is the interjection of wonder; e.g., iei Padre sama cochi gozaru io 'oh! here is the Reverend Father.'

Hat is the interjection that indicates that one is repentent; e.g., Benqei core vo mite hat coto naxi to zonjite, sono mama niva ni bǒ vo voraxi, etc. (127v) 'Benkei seeing this,' etc.[173]

The Syntax and the Cases that are Governed by the Verbs[174]

The nominative is placed at the beginning of the sentence and the verb at the end: the remaining elements are placed according to the cadence (cadentia) of the sentence; e.g., Pedro va Nagasaqi de xutrai xita iqi iqi ni tçuite juan vo coroita 'Peter killed John because of an argument that took place in Nagasaki.' In certain sentences of serious import a substitute verb (verbum suppositum) is placed after the verb, but this is rare; e.g., tare mo canavanu futari no qimi ni tçucǒru coto va (84)[175] 'no one can serve two masters.' In this sentence the substitute verb is tçucǒru coto va. Core ni iote tanomi tatematçuru itçumo virgen [Core ni iotte ...] (84) 'therefore I pray to the ever virgin [Mary].'

Clauses (orationes) in the absolute or permissive subjunctive, infinitive, conditional, and causative are always placed before clauses that are in the indicative or imperative, even if it does not make sense in Latin or any other European language; e.g., achi cara tomeraruru tomo; tomaru na 'do not stay, even if they want you to remain,' sore vo qiitareba, fara vo tatete modotta 'when he heard that, he came back very angry,' taxicani uqetamotta ni iotte coso, móxi ague maraxitare 'I listened carefully, and then I spoke,' faiǒ gozatta raba vo mexi vo xinjô mono vo 'if you had come earlier, I would have offered you food.'

When there are two verbs in the same sentence, the first will (62 be in the gerund form and the other will be in the tense that is required by the sense of the sentence; e.g., core vo totte giqi ni mi ga comono ni vataxe 'take this and give it to my servant at once.'

When there are two or more clauses which have the same subject or tense, only the last verb will be in the tense that is required by the sense of the sentence. The other verbs will be in the root form, while still others will be in the gerund in e form; e.g., tovazunba cotaiezu, voxe raba tçuxxinde qiqi [tovazũba ... vôxe ... qiqe] (85v)[176] 'if they don't ask don't answer: if they speak listen carefully,' Deus no vo coto vo macoto ni uqe, go voqite mo camavaide, sono mama inferno ni vochita 'he did not believe in God, and he did not respect His precepts; therefore, he fell into Hell.'

Verbs are always placed in the third person to indicate honor. No one honors himself except the king when he is speaking of himself; e.g., iorocobi ni voboximesu 'I am enjoying it very much.'

When there are many adjectives in a sentence, they will all be in the adverbial form except the last; e.g., qe nangǒ, iro curô, icanimo utçucuxij mono [qe nagǒ ...][177] 'a very beautiful person with long, black hair.'

The particle to is placed before verbs of understanding, believing, and hearing, takes the place of the verb 'to be,' and means 'that'; fito to zonjita 'I thought, or believed that he was a man,' qixó vo jennin to vomovô ca? [qixo ... vomovǒ ca?] 'shall I believe that you are a saint?' Amata no fito xini no fonovo ni moiuru vo misaxerareô (20)[178] 'you will see many men burning in the flames of indignation.' Here one has replaced to with moiuru vo, which is a substitute verb. When mo is added to to it strongly affirms what is said; e.g., mairó to mo 'I shall certainly go, or I will be going.'

The particle to, in the first meaning, is sometimes replaced by iǒni; e.g., agueta iǒni gozaru 'they say that he offered it,' ica iǒna fito to va xiranu 'I did not know what kind of a man he was.' Sometimes the substantive verb takes the place of the particle to; e.g., mairó de gozatta 'he said that he would come,' xô de va naqeredomo 'although I did not say that I would do it.'

Qiuzo core vo mite, ima vo saigo no coto de areba (97)[179] 'seeing this, Kiso believed that the hour of death was present, etc.' Here the substantive verb replaces to and serves as an active verb governing the accusative ima vo, which also replaces to. The particles sǒna and guena mean 'it seems.' Sǒna is added to the roots of verbs; e.g., deqi (63 sǒna 'it seems that it is finished.' If a substantive verb is placed after this particle the a is changed to i; e.g., deqi sǒni gozaru 'it seems that he will finish,' deqi sǒni mo zonjenu 'I believe that it will not be finished.'[180] Sǒna is also added to adjectives in i, and when it is the i is lost; e.g., io sǒna 'it seems good, or it seems that it is good,' xigue sǒna 'it seems dense,' and aiau sǒna 'it seems that I am in danger.' If this particle is added to adjectives in na, the na is lost; e.g., aqiraca sǒna 'it seems that it is clear.'

The particle guena is added to the nouns and verbs previously formed; e.g., maitta guena 'I believe that he has come.' If a substantive verb is added to this particle the a changes to i; e.g., maitta gueni gozaru 'I believe that he has come.' Sǒna means 'it seems,' and guena means 'I believe,' but either of these forms may occasionally be used in any of the examples given.

When a sentence has two preterits, the first may be in the preterit and the second in the future; e.g., qesa cara sǒ vôxerareta raba mo faia de maraxô 'If you would have said that this morning, I would have already left.'

When reporting what someone else has said, it is said this way; Padre mósaruru va: iagate sonata ie mairó to mǒsaruru 'the priest said that he was going to come.' Sometimes when one is excusing himself he will use no in place of to; e.g., asu no, raiguat no, nando to noburu na 'don't spread around that it is tomorrow, next month, or whenever.'

When vo follows n it loses its v; e.g., go von o uqetatematçutta 'I received benefits.'[181]

Adverbs are always placed before their verbs except for the adverbs of time which are placed at the beginning of the sentence; e.g., sore vo qijte iccó xicari maraxita 'hearing that he was very angry,' qiô nen espana cara vatatta toqi [qio nen ...] 'when I sailed from Spain last year.' Each verb requires before it a subject in the nominative case, either expressed or understood; e.g., vare iqe or iqe 'come!', where the vare is understood. In some sentences this rule is not respected; e.g., xisai voba core ni mósare maraxozu [... maraxôzu] 'he will explain, or give the reason for this.' In the following case we do not see the nominative, but rather are ni va, which is in the dative or ablative; are ni va, navo voixri atta [... voxiri atta] 'he knows better.' In this sentence the are ni va ought to be in the nominative. Cacaru vo ni va cogane no cusari vo icusugi mo tçuqeta dógu de gozaru (138v) 'for a necklace (torques) he had a chain of gold with many links.'

Core ni va gozonji aru mai 'Your Lordship does not know (64 about this.' Here the core ni va replaces the accusative which is governed by zonji,uru.

The impersonal verb or the infinitive requires a nominative before it; e.g., Pedro va maitta to mósu 'they say that Peter came.'

The verb iri,u, which means 'to need,' governs two nominatives, one for the thing and the other for the person in need; e.g., vatacuxi va cono cane ga iru 'I need, or I have a necessity for this money.' It also governs the dative for the person; e.g., sono tame ni va cane ga iranu 'he does not need any gold, or money.'

The active verb requires the accusative before it; e.g., cane vo motanu 'I have no money.'

Certain cobita or coie nouns, as we have said above, are borrowed from Chinese and govern the same cases as the Japanese verbs to which they correspond; e.g., niva vo qenbut no aida ni mexi vo coxiraie io 'prepare the food while we visit the garden.' The noun qenbut requires the accusative niva vo. The same is true with fito ni guenzan suru (97) which is like fito ni vó 'I meet the man.' The guenzan governs the dative just as does the verb ai,ó.

When a borrowed word (vocabulum cobitum)[182] is a compound of two elements it is possible to determine if it is a verb by seeing if the first part has the meaning of a verb; e.g., jóten is a verb which means 'to ascend to heaven' with the jǒ meaning to 'go up.' Tenjǒ is a noun in which the jǒ is placed after the ten and means 'heaven.'

The passive verb has the ablative for its agent (persona agente); e.g., Pedro cara corosareta 'he was killed by Peter,' but it is better that it govern the dative; e.g., Pedro ni corosareta, or Pedro va nusubito ni cane vo torareta 'Peter had his money stolen by thieves.'

There are also certain neutral verbs which govern the accusative as if they were active verbs; e.g., xiqitai vo fanaruru 'to depart from the body, or to die,' axi vo vazzuró 'to have a pain in the foot.' This is also true for nigue,uru 'to escape,' nogare,uru 'to evade,' de,uru 'to go out,' noqe,uru 'to retreat,' tovori,u 'to go across,' nori,u 'to sail,' as in caixǒ vo noru 'I sail the sea,' iuqi,u 'to walk,' as in michi vo iuqu 'I walk the streets,' vovari,u 'to finish,' mairi,u as in xogui vo mairu 'I play chess (tabula laterucularia),' iorocobi,u as in cocoro vo iorocobu 'I gladden the heart,' abi,uru, as in mizzu vo abiru[183] 'I wash myself with water, or I pour water on myself,' avaremi,u 'I am sad,' (65 canaximi,u 'I am unhappy,' coie,uru 'to cross over,' fabacari,u 'to be shy,' facarai,ǒ 'to take care of,' faxiri,u 'to sail,' as in caixǒ, vo, faxiru [caixǒ vo faxiru] 'I sail the sea,' fagi,zzuru 'to be ashamed,' fedate,tçuru 'to separate,' fe,uru 'to spend,' as in ficazu vo furu 'I spend many days,' [fumaie,uru 'to be based on,' as in] dori vo fumaiuru 'to be based on reason, or to have reason as a basis,' itami,u 'to be sick,' mavari,u 'to go around,' as in cono cotovari vo móxi mavatta 'he goes around and spreads the news here and there,' meguri,u has the same meaning, nagusami,u 'to please,' as in cocoro vo nagusamu 'I make the heart happy,' naqi,u 'to weep,' tasucari,u 'to be saved,' as in inochi vo tasucaru 'I am saved from the dangers of life,' or goxǒ vo tasucaru 'to be saved for a future life,' tachi,tçu 'to go away from,' as in tocoro vo tatçu 'I go away from this place,' tomurai,ó 'to make a funeral for the dead,' ucagai,ó 'to inquire with hesitation,' voximi,u 'to value,' urami,u 'to enquire,' xinobi,u 'to wait in hiding, almost insidiously,' as in fito no me vo xinobu 'I am careful lest someone see me.'[184] A few of these verbs which require the accusative of location admit to the use of the ablative with the particles cara or iori; e.g., tocoro vo tatçu is the same as tocoro iori tatçu 'I leave the place.'

There are some active verbs which require two accusative cases; e.g., fori,u, daxi,u, fanaxi,u, tate,tçuru. For example, Pedro vo soco vo voi idaita 'they led Peter away from that place.' It is possible that it governs the ablative of location; e.g., Pedro vo soco cara voi daita [... voi idaita]. Some take either the dative or the accusative; e.g., fito vo, or fito ni fanare,uru 'to go away from the men,' Deus vo, or Deus ni somuqi,u 'to offend God.' Verbs of this kind are generally verbs of fearing, offending, or going away.[185]

Many verbs of helping, harming, damning, obeying, recognizing as superior or inferior, being subjugated, being victorious, and similar verbs govern the dative; e.g., chiie saicacu iǒni coieta 'he is superior to others in wisdom and industry.'[186]

Verbs of giving, promising, and the like, govern the accusative for the thing and the dative for the person; e.g., fito ni cane vo cururu 'to give money to someone.'[187]

There are many verbs which permit before themselves the roots of other verbs without change, letting the roots take on the function of an infinitive; e.g., qiqi fajime,uru 'to begin to hear.' Some of these verbs are: nare,uru 'to become accustomed,' tçuqe,uru with the same (66 meaning, fate,tçuru 'to finish,' narai,ó 'to learn,' some,uru 'to begin,' todoqe,uru 'to continue,' ate,tçuru 'to direct,' atari,u 'to find by chance,' vaqe,uru 'to divide,' cane,uru 'to be able to do with difficulty,' soconai,ǒ 'to be wrong,' sumaxi,u 'to finish,' sugoxi,u 'to exceed,' fague maxi,u 'to work much and intensely,' aqi,u 'to become bored,' tai 'to want,' and tǒ mo nai 'to not want.'[188] If the roots of verbs are placed before certain adjectives ending in i, they form a kind of supine in Tu; e.g., iomi iasui (92) 'easy to read (facile lectu),' etc.

A numeral, if a substantive noun is placed after it, must be in the genitive case; e.g., fitotçu no toga 'one sin.' The same is true with the particle fodo when it means 'all'; e.g., aru fodo no fito 'how so ever many.' The same is true with iori; e.g., Nanban iori no mono 'things from Europe.' But this is a relative formation (relatiuum). The genitive is also required with nouns that mean much or little; e.g., amata no fito 'many men.' These nouns are; bechi 'other,' fon 'one's own,' cazucazu 'many,' sama zama 'many ways.' Iro iro 'much' is the same as iorozzu and izzure. Issai means 'all,' as does vono vono, cotogotoqu, and reqi reqi for a noble person, igue 'that which follows,' nocori 'that which remains,' itçumo 'always,' itçumo no coto 'that which always is,' tçune 'usual,' ima 'now.' Isasaca means 'a little,' as does soto or sucoxi, xotocu 'natural,' sono foca 'others.'[189] These nouns are in the genitive if they are followed by a substantive noun, but when they are not followed by a noun they must be taken as adjectives. If they are followed by a verb rather than a noun, they do not require the genitive; e.g., iorozzu dancǒ xite iocarǒ 'it will be good if you all confer.'

Japanese Arithmetic and Numerical Matters
Concerning Which Much Painful
Labor Is Required

There are two ways to count in Japanese.[190] The first is with the ordinary numerals which are called iomi. With these one is able to count to ten; e.g., fitotçu means 'one,' which is also used to (67 say 'a little,' as in saqe fitotçu nomaxite tamǒre 'give me a little sake to drink.' Futatçu means 'two,' mitçu 'three,' iotçu 'four,' itçutçu 'five,' mutçu 'six,' nanatçu 'seven,' iatçu 'eight,' coconotçu 'nine,' and tovo 'ten.' Icutçu means 'what?' and is used when one does not have the proper number.

The second way of counting is with the coie vocables which are borrowed from Chinese. These numbers are not used by themselves to count to ten; but are rather used when counting things which are represented by Chinese, and not Japanese vocables. These bound numerals (termini numerales) are: ichi 'one,' ni 'two,' san 'three,' xi 'four,' go 'five,' rocu 'six,' xichi 'seven,' fachi 'eight,' cu 'nine,' jú 'ten.' The numbers eleven and above are made by joining these numbers together. Thus, 'eleven' is jǔichi; júni is 'twelve,' júsan 'thirteen,' júcu 'ninteen.' The tens are obtained by placing one of the numbers in front of ten; e.g., nijú 'twenty,' sanjú 'thirty,' sanjǔichi 'thirty-one,' cujǔ 'ninety.' Fiacu means 'hundred,' fiacu ichi 'one hundred and one,' fiacu jǔ 'one hundred and ten,' fiacu sanjǔ 'one hundred and thirty,' ni fiacu 'two hundred,' sambiacu 'three hundred.' Xen means 'thousand,' and xen roppiacu sanjǔ ichi is 'sixteen thirty-one.'

By placing the Japanese numerals in front of Japanese vocables, which are called iomi, and by removing the tçu of the aforementioned numbers before they are joined to nouns or verb stems, one is able to enumerate those things which are indicated by the vocable; e.g., fito cotoba 'one word,' futa cotovari 'two reasons,' mi ami 'three nets, or three casts of the net,' iocama 'to bake something four times in an oven,' itçu caqe 'five attacks,' mu casane 'six robes, or covers,' nana catana 'seven wounds by a sword,' ia catague 'eight loads,' cu cavari[191] 'nine changes,' to cusa 'ten varieties.' Above the number ten this way of counting is not used, instead they say iro júichi or júichi no iro for 'eleven colors.' The interrogative is icutçu. If the thing being questioned is placed after the interrogative the particle no is added; e.g., itçucu no qi zo [icutçu ...] 'how many trees are there?' To such a question the answer is futatçu 'two,' mitçu 'three,' etc. If the tçu is removed from icutçu, one may place it in front of the thing being asked about; e.g., icu tocoro 'how many places?' icu toqi 'how many hours?'; also fito fanaxi 'one sermon, or conversation,' futa sugi 'two treads,' io te 'four hands, as in a fight,' itçu tçubu 'five grains,' mu tocoro 'six (68 places,' ia mavari 'six [eight] circuits,' cu ninai 'nine loads, carried in the Japanese fashion on a stick with the load in front,' to vatari 'ten crossings.' It is possible to count the same thing in different ways. Thus, mu tocoro is also mutçu no tocoro and tocoro mutçu 'six places.' Fito ie means 'one plain thing,' futa ie 'doubled, or duplicate,' mi ie 'triplicate,' etc. In the same way one may add Chinese numerals to Chinese vocables, or coie. Usually in this way of counting a [phonetic] change occurs in either the number or the thing counted. Sometimes this change is in the first part, sometimes in the second, and at other times in both. This is particularly true with the first, second, third, sixth, tenth, and one hundredth numbers. With the items below, if nothing is noted, it is an indication that nothing is changed.

When asking about men one says icutari? 'how many men?' The response is made by adding nin to the Chinese numeral; e.g., ichi nin 'one man,' ni nin 'two men,' iottari 'four men'; this is because xinin means 'dead person.'

When asking about days one says icca 'how many days?' The response is fi fitoi,[192] because ichi nichi means 'one entire solar day,' futçuca 'two days,' micca 'three days,' iocca 'four days,' itçuca 'five days,' muica 'six days,' nanuca 'seven days,' iǒca 'eight days,' coconoca 'nine days,' toca[193] 'ten days,' fatçuca 'twenty days.' The remaining days are counted with coie numerals.

When counting nights ia is added to the coie numerals; e.g., ichi ia 'one night,' ni ia 'two nights,' etc. It is also possible to add io which means 'night' in Japanese to the iomi numeral; e.g., icu io 'how many nights?' futa io 'two nights,' nana io 'seven nights,' etc.

When enumerating the months of the year guat is added to the coie numeral, with the exception that the first month is called xóguat. The second is niguat, the third is saguat,[194] the fourth is xiguat, the eleventh is ximotçuqi, and the twelfth and last is xi vasu. When counting months the tçu is removed from the iomi numeral and the word tçuqi, which means 'month,' is added. Icutçuqi? means 'how many months.' In response one says fitotçuqi 'one month,' up to ten which is totçuqi, and from there on one counts with coie numerals; e.g., júichiguat 'eleven months.' If one wants to ask what month it is, January, February, one says nanguat. The first month of the (69 Japanese year is March.

In the enumeration of the years nen is placed after the coie numeral. In asking how many, nen [nan] is placed before nen; e.g., nannen 'how many years?' In response one says ichinen 'one year,' ionen 'four years,' sanganen 'three years,' sǒ ionen[195] 'three or four years,' sǒ xijúnen 'thirty or forty years,' fatachi means 'twenty years of age,' as does nijǔnen, nijǔ no toxi, or toxi niju. They ask with icutoxi or toxi icutçu 'how old are you.' They count the age of men and animals such as cattle and horses by adding sai to the coie numeral; e.g., issai 'one,' nisai 'two,' sanzai 'three.'

In counting turns (visis) do is added to the coie numerals; e.g., nando 'how many times,' ichido 'once,' iodo 'four times,' godo 'five times,' sai san 'twice or thrice.'

In the enumeration of ships sô is placed after the coie numeral; e.g., nanzo [nanzô] 'how many ships,' to which one answers issô 'one ship,' niso [nisô] 'two,' sanzô 'three,' fassô 'eight,' jússô [jissô] 'ten.'

Ichiren 'one string,' niren 'two,' saren 'three,' as in figs or pearls.

When enumerating sermons, homilies (tractatus), or repetitions of things, fen is placed after the numeral; e.g., ippen 'one sermon,' nifen 'two,' sanben 'three,' ave maria fiacu gojippen 'one hundred and fifty Hail Mary's.'

In counting gold currency momme is placed after the numeral; e.g., ichi momme 'one momme,' ni momme 'two,' san mome [san momme] 'three.' When a momme is divided into tenths it is called an ippun [fun]. Thus, ippun means one tenth part of a momme, nifun means 'two tenths,' gofun means half the basic unit (media dragma), roppun means 'six tenths of a momme.'

When the tenth part of a momme is divided again into ten parts it is counted as ichirin, nirin, sarin, iorin, gorin, rocurin, xichirin, fachirin, and curin. Then comes ippun, which is one tenth of a momme. Fiacu me means 'one hundred momme,' fiacu ichi momme 'one hundred and one,' icquan me means 'one thousand momme,' jicquanme means 'ten thousand.' There are other coins of silver which are counted by placing mai or mon after the numeral; e.g., ichi mon means one of that unit, ni mon is 'two,' San mai is three hundred mon. They no longer produce a coin which is one half of the gold coin, but one thousand of these coins make icquan, while jicquan is 'ten (70 thousand quan.'[196]

Core va ica fodo ni suru 'how much is this worth?' or ica fodo ni uru 'at what price will you sell this?' Ni momme suru 'I consider it worth two momme,' or ni momme ni iasui 'I can sell this for more than two momme, or at two momme this is cheap.'

The enumeration of liquid measurements is done by placing the particle xô in front of the liquid quantity; e.g., ixxo [ixxô] 'one xô,' nixo [nixô] 'two,' sango [sanjô] 'three.' Ten xô are itto which is the particle to placed after the numeral; nito means 'twenty xô,' sando 'thirty.' For one tenth of a xô one places the particle go after the numeral; e.g., Ichigo 'one go,' nigo 'two,' sango 'three,' ixxô gogo 'one and one half xô.' Fatto is eighty xô. One hundred xô make ichi cocu. By placing the cocu after numerals one obtains ni cocu 'two hundred xô,' sangocu 'three hundred,' jiccocu 'one thousand,' xencocu 'ten thousand,' ichi mangocu 'one hundred thousand.'

The enumeration of the measurements of human height is achieved by placing fito [firo] after the iomi numerals; e.g., fito firo 'one firo,' futa firo 'two,' jippiro 'ten.' The measurement of a span (palmus) is made by adding xacu to the coie numerals; e.g., ixxacu 'one span, or three spans by the Spanish measuring system,'[197] sanjaku 'three.' Goxacu is the same as fito firo which is a measurement we have referred to before. Six xacu make up a measurement called icqen 'one qen,' nicqen [niqen] 'two,' jicqen 'ten,' and sanguen 'three.' From sixty of these measurements one makes a measurement called icchó, that is 'one mountain path,' nicchǒ [nichǒ] 'two,' jichiǒ [jicchǒ] 'ten,' sangiǒ 'three.' From sixty-three [thirty-six] chô, as measured in the northern part of Japan, one obtains ichiri which is one league or one miliar. One enumerates by adding ri to the coie numerals; e.g., niri 'two,' sanri 'three,' gori 'five,' júri 'ten'; iori is 'four,' because xiri means anus.[198] Fan michi means 'a half of a league.' They say; ioco fan miqi tate ichiri [... michi ...] 'a half a ri wide and one ri long,' faba icqen 'the width is one qen,' iofǒ futa firo 'two hiro on all sides.'

The cardinal numbers first, second, etc. are made by adding ban to the coie numerals; e.g., ichi ban 'first,' ni ban 'second.' To these are also added me, as said before; e.g., xi ban me 'fourth.' One may also make the cardinal numbers by placing dai in front of the coie (71 numerals; e.g., daiichi 'first,' daini 'second,' etc.

The enumeration of multiples is done by adding bai to the numbers; e.g., ichibai 'double,' nibai 'triple,' sanbai 'quadruple,'[199] fiacu zobai 'one hundred fold.'

The enumeration of the parts from the whole is done by placing buichi after the numeral; e.g., ni buichi 'one from two parts,' san buichi 'one from three parts.'

To indicate one tenth vari is placed after the numeral; e.g., ichi vari 'one from ten parts,' xi vari gobu 'four and one half from ten parts.' Jú buichi is the same as ichi vari.

The enumeration of oars, muskets, and long things made of wood is done by placing chó after the numerals; e.g., icchó 'one oar,' nichó 'two,' sangiǒ 'three,' jichó [jicchó] 'ten.'

The enumeration of fish and fire wood is done by placing con after the numerals;[200] e.g., iccon, 'one fish,' sangon 'three,' jiccon 'ten,' fiaccon 'one hundred,' fiacu gojǔ sangon 'one hundred and fifty-three.' This is the amount Saint Peter caught, and even though he caught that number the net did not tear.

The enumeration of leaves of paper and sheets of gold, etc. is done by placing mai after the numeral; e.g., ichimai 'one leaf,' cami gomai 'five leaves of paper.'

The enumeration of the stories of a house is done by placing cai after the numeral; e.g., nicai 'the first floor,' sangai 'the second,' xigai 'the third,' gocai 'the fourth,' when counted as in a house in Madrid.

The enumeration of utensils and cups for drinking is done by placing fai after the numeral; e.g., ippai 'one drink, or one draught,' nifai 'two,' sanbai 'three,' jippai 'ten.'

The enumeration of rolls of silk or the like is done by placing tan after the numeral; e.g., ittan 'one roll,' nitan 'two,' sandan 'three,' jittan 'ten.' Xichitan bune is a ship with a sail seven tan wide.

This is also said by adding mai to the numeral; e.g., gomai 'five,' as in gomai bune 'a ship having a sail five mai wide.'

The enumeration of four-footed animals is done by placing fiqi after the numeral; e.g., ippiqi 'one animal,' nifiqi 'two,' sanbiqi 'three,' roppiqi 'six,' jippiqi 'ten,' fiappiqi 'one hundred,' xenbiqi 'one thousand.'

The enumeration of images, pictures, and medicines is done (72 by placing fucu after the numeral; e.g., ippucu 'one item,' nifucu 'two,' sanbucu 'three,' roppucu 'six,' jippucu 'ten.' Needles are also counted this way.

The enumeration of pounds (libra) is done by placing qin after the numeral; e.g., icqin 'one pound,' niqin 'two,' sanguin 'three,' rocqin 'six,' jicqin 'ten,' fiacqin 'one hundred,' xenqin 'one thousand.'

The enumeration of masses and congregations of men is done by placing za after the numeral; e.g., ichiza 'one congregation,' niza 'two,' sanza 'three,' jǔza, or better toza 'ten.'

The enumeration of sacks of rice, wheat, and the like, is done by placing fiô after the numeral; e.g., ippiô 'one sack,' nifiô 'two,' sanbiô 'three,' xifio [xifiô] 'four,' roppio [roppiô] 'six,' jippio [jippiô] 'ten,' fiiappio [fiappiô] 'one hundred,' xembiô [xenbiô] 'one thousand.'

The enumeration of pieces of wood, reeds, and needles is done by placing fon after the numeral; e.g., ippon 'one item,' nifon 'two,' sanbon 'three,' roppon 'six,' jippon 'ten,' fiappon 'one hundred,' xenbon 'one thousand.'

The enumeration of bundles (fasciculus) is done by placing va after the numeral; e.g., ichiva 'one bundle,' niva 'two,' sanba 'three,' jippa 'ten,' júichiva 'eleven,' ni jippa 'twenty.'

The enumeration of burdens or the packs that horses carry is done by placing só after the numeral; e.g., issó 'one burden,' nisǒ 'two,' sanzó 'three,' jissǒ 'ten.' In the same way one counts those furnishings called biǒbu; two or a pair from a set is called issó, etc.

The enumeration of that which in the vernacular is called a quire of paper (mano de papel) is done by placing giô after the numeral; e.g., ichigio [ichigiô] 'one quire,' nigio [nigiô] 'two,' sangiô 'three,' so on to ten. Units of ten are counted by adding socu to the numeral; e.g., issocu 'ten quires, or what in the vernacular is called a half ream (media resma),' nisocu 'twenty, or an entire ream.' With this particle socu added to numerals one also counts pairs of shoes; e.g., issocu 'a pair of shoes.'

The enumeration of substance (substantia) is done by placing tai after the numeral; e.g., ittai 'one substance,' nitai 'two,' sandai 'three.' Deus no von tocoro va goittai de gozaru 'God as God is of one substance and one essence.'

The enumeration of the divisions in a writing (capitulum) is done by placing cagiô after the numeral; e.g., iccagiô 'one chapter,' (73 nicagio [nicagiô] 'two,' sangagio [sangagiô] 'three,' roccagio [roccagiô] 'six,' fiaccagio [fiaccagiô] 'one hundred.'

The enumeration of drops is done by placing teqi after the numeral; e.g., itteqi 'one drop,' jitteqi 'ten.' The same meaning is obtained by adding xizzucu to the iomi numeral; e.g., fito xizzucu 'one drop,' etc. In this case the tçu must be removed from the numeral.

The enumeration of the pairs of small sticks (paxillus) with which they eat is done by placing tçui after the numeral; e.g., itçui [ittçui] 'one pair,' jittçui 'ten.'

The enumeration of bundles is done by placing ca after the numeral; e.g., icca 'one bundle,' nica 'two,' sanga 'three.'

The enumeration of books is done by placing quan after the numeral; e.g., icquan 'one book,' niquan 'two,' sanguan 'three,' roquan [rocquan] 'six,' jiquan [jicquan] 'ten.'

With the interrogative nan, when it is placed before one of these nouns, it changes it in the same way as does the number three; e.g., ano mmadomo va nanbiki zo? 'how many horses are there?'

The enumeration of kingdoms (regnum) is done by placing cacocu after the numeral; e.g., iccacocu 'one kingdom,' nicacocu 'two,' sangacocu 'three,' jiccacocu 'ten.' Kingdoms are divided into provinces or districts called gun, and this word also is placed after the numeral; e.g., ichigun 'one province,' nigun 'two,' sangun 'three,' etc.

Sermons and exhortations are enumerated by placing dan after the numeral; ichidan 'one sermon, or assembly.' Words are enumerated by placing gon or guen after the numeral; e.g., ichigon 'one word,' sanguen 'three words.'

Placing the particle zzutçu after either coie or iomi numerals gives the meaning of 'each'; e.g., ichinin ni uxi sanbiki zzutçu vo toraxeta 'he let the men have three oxen each,' ichinin zzutçu saqe sanbai zzutçu vo nomareta 'each man drank three sake each.'

In speaking of two or three things separately, they join the two numbers; e.g., xigonin 'four or five men,' from which others may be copied.

The honorific particles are four; vo, von, go, and mi.[201] The first two are joined to iomi vocables. The last two are joined to coie, or Chinese vocables. The last is the most honorific and is used when speaking of things divine; e.g., midexi tachi 'disciples of Christ the Lord,' goichinin vocoite cudasarei 'please send one from among the Lords.'

The words which follow have honorific particles that have (74 been added by the speaker. However, the honor is shown to the person addressed or to those related to him; e.g., go focô [go fôcô] 'a duty,' von furu mai 'a banquet,' von cotoba 'a word, or a sermon,' von mono gatari 'a conversation,' von natçucaxij or von nocori vovoi which mean the same as what the Portuguese call saudades (nostalgia) and the Spanish call carino (affection), von tori avaxe 'intercession,' von mi mai 'a visit,' von cha 'that which one drinks when they invite you,' go dancó 'a consultation or congregation for the purpose of obtaining advice,' von rei 'an act of gratitude,' von busata 'a lapse of good manners,' vo motenaxi 'to treat well and elegantly,' go chiso [go chisô] 'esteem,' go iqen 'an opinion,' e.g., fabacari nagara go iqen vo mǒxitai 'forgive me but I would like to give you some advice,' etc.

Some Rules on the Conjugation of the Verb
in the Written Language

If the final u is removed from the negative present it becomes an affirmative verb; e.g., oracio vo tçutomen toqi va 'when I say my prayers,' xosa no tçutomen tame ni va 'in order to execute the work,' michibiqi tamavan to voboximexi 'thinking of leading forth.'[202]

For the affirmative future beqi is added to the affirmative form with the ru removed; for the future negative becarazu is added to the affirmative form; e.g., mǒsu beqi 'you will speak,' mósu becarazu 'you will not speak.' When the sentence ends in the future, beqi is changed to bexi.

The infinitive for the future is formed by adding coto to the future tense; e.g., iomu beqi coto. The subjunctive is formed by adding qereba to the root of the verb; e.g., sugure qereba.

The gerund in Do is formed by adding te to the root of the verb; e.g., qiqi tamaite.

The substantive verb in the written language is nari,u or qeri,u. If it comes at the end of the sentence it takes the root form;[203] e.g., sadame naqi io no ixei nari 'it is the dignity of a world without stability.'

The preterit is formed by adding ari,u [tari,u] to the root; e.g., suguretaru. If the form comes at the end of a sentence ari,u (75 [tari,u] is retained in the root form; e.g., suguretari.

The pluperfect is formed by placing nari after the present tense; e.g., ague tamǒ nari 'they had shown respect.'

Even though there are other rules for the written language, if the reader knows Japanese well enough to read books, he will be able to progress in the language without difficulty.

PRAISE BE TO GOD

Works Consulted

Alvarez, Manuel (Emmanuel Alvarus), De Institutione Grammatica, Libri III, Lisbon, 1572. (Also Amakusa, 1594. Cf. Laures #14.)

Collado, Diego, O.P., Ars Grammaticae Iaponicae Linguae, Rome, 1632. (Trans. by Ōtsuka Takanobu as Koiyaado-chō Nippon bunten, 1934 and revised as Koryaado Nihon bunten, 1957. Cf. Laures #54.)

Collado, Diego, O.P., Dictionarium sive Thesauri Linguae Iaponicae Compendium, Rome, 1632. (Edited by Ōtsuka Mitsunobu as Koryaado Ra-Su-Nichi jiten, 1966. Cf. Laures #56.)

Collado, Diego, O.P., Niffon no cotõba ni yô confesion, Rome, 1632. (Transcribed by Ōtsuka Mitsunobu as Koryaado zangeroku, 1957. Cf. Laures #56.)

Doi Tadao [Japanese], Kirishitan gogaku no kenkyū [Japanese], Tokyo, 1971.

Doi Tadao [Japanese], "Koryaado Nihon bunten no seiritsu [Japanese]," Nihon gogaku shinkō iinkai kenyū hōkoku, #3, 1941.

Doi Tadao [Japanese], ed., Nippo jisho [Japanese], Tokyo, 1960. (Japanese edition of the Vocabulario.)

Doi Tadao [Japanese], trs., Rodorigesu Nihon daibunten [Japanese] Tokyo, 1955. (Trans. of Rodriguez' Arte.)

Fukushima Kunimichi [Japanese], Kirishitan Shiryō to kokugo kenkyū [Japanese], Tokyo, 1973.

Hashimoto Shinkichi [Japanese], Kirishitan kyōgi no kenkyū [Japanese], Tokyo, 1928.

Iwai Yoshio [Japanese], Nihongohō-shi: Muromachi-jidai hen [Japanese] Tokyo, 1973.

Laures, Johannes, S.J., Kirishitan Bunko, Tokyo, 1957.

Lebrija, Antonio (Antonius Nebrissensis), Introductiones Latinae, Salamanca, 1481.

Moran, Joseph F., A Commentary on the Arte Breve da Lingoa Iapoa of João Rodriguez, S.J.: With Particular Reference to Pronunciation, Unpublished doctoral thesis, Oxford, 1971.

Ōtomo Shin'ichi [Japanese], Muromachi-jidai no kokugo-onsei no kenkyū [Japanese], Tokyo, 1963.

Ōtsuka Mitsunobu [Japanese], ed., Koryaado Ra-Su-Nichi jiten [Japanese], Tokyo, 1966. (Japanese edition of Collado's Dictionarium.)

Ōtsuka Mitsunobu [Japanese], ed., Koryaado zangeroku [Japanese], Tokyo, 1957. (Japanese edition of Collado's Confesion.)

Ōtsuka Takanobu [Japanese], tr., Koiyaado-chō Nihongo bunten [Japanese], Tokyo, 1934. (Revised as Koryaado Nihon bunten [Japanese], Tokyo, 1957. Translation of Collado's Ars Grammaticae.)

Rodriguez, João, S.J., Arte Breve da Lingoa Iapoa, Macao, 1620. (Cf. Laures #35.)

Rodriguez, João, S.J., Arte da Lingoa de Iapam, Nagasaki, 1604-1608. (Translated by Doi Tadao as Rodorigesu Nihon daibunten, 1955. Cf. Laures #28.)

Rodriguez, João, S.J., ed., Vocabulario da Lingoa de Iapam, Nagasaki, 1603-1604. (Edited by Doi Tadao as Nippo Jisho, 1960. Cf. Laures #27.)

Thurot, Charles, Extraits de divers manuscrits Latins pour servir a l'historie des doctrines grammaticales au moyen-age, Paris, 1869.

Yuzawa Kōkichirō [Japanese], Muromachi-jidai gengo no Kenkyū [Japanese], Tokyo, 1958.

Index To Grammatical Categories

The list which follows refers to the location of the general categories defined by Collado's description of Japanese. A broader classification of the grammar will be found in the table of contents while the specific grammatical elements are listed in the index which follows.

ablative (see cases)

accusative (see cases)

adjectival roots 114, 116, 138, 139

adjectives 114-117, 138, 139

adjectives, conditional 139

gerund 138

negative 138, 139

permissive 138

adverbial roots 115, 139, 162

adverbs 156-164

adverbs, accumulative 162

affirmative 160

comparative 161

conclusive 163

exaggerative 162

exclamatory 163

intensifying 162

interrogative 159

locational 156

negative 160

superlative 162

temporal 159

adversitive (see particles)

alternative (see particles)

arithmetic 174-182

auxiliaries 145-147, 149

auxiliaries, emphatic 149

humble 147

honorific 145, 146, 147

cases 111-113

cases, ablative 113

accusative 112

dative 112

genitive 112, 174

nominative 111

vocative 113

causative (see verbs)

conditional (see moods)

confirmation (see particles)

conjugations 166, 167

comparatives 161

copulas 137

copulas, negative 137

dative (see cases)

deciderative (see particles)

disjunctive (see particles)

disjunctive constructions 167

distributive (see particles)

dubitive (see particles)

emphatic (see particles)

exclamatory (see adverbs, particles)

future tense (see verbs)

genitive (see cases)

gerund (see verbs)

honorific (see auxiliaries, particles, verbs)

imperative (see moods)

imperfect aspect (see verbs)

infinitive (see verbs)

intensifier (see particles)

interjections 126, 132, 167, 168

interrogative (see particles)

irregular verbs (see verbs)

moods 125-142

moods, conditional 139, 140

imperative 125, 126, 132, 135-137

optative 126, 132

permissive 127-129, 133, 138, 139, 155

potential 140, 141

subjunctive 127, 128, 131-133, 138, 153

negative (see verbs)

neutral (see verbs)

nominalizers (see particles)

nominative (see cases)

nouns 111-118

optative (see moods, particles)

participle (see verbs)

particles 113-120, 148-156, 164-168, 182

particles, adversative 150, 153, 154

alternative 152

deciderative 126, 153

disjunctive 167

distributive 120, 157

dubitive 162, 163

emphatic 124, 125, 149, 167, 150

exclamatory 163

honorific 118, 119, 146, 147, 182

intensive 120, 148, 149, 162, 163, 164

interrogative 156, 159, 163, 168

nominalizing 117

optative 126, 132

pejorative 119, 120

permissive 128, 133

pluralizing 113, 114, 118, 119

presumptive 170

quotative 168, 170, 171

temporal 149, 154, 159

particles of manner 153, 154

particles of possibility 153

particles of similarity 149, 150, 161

passive (see verbs)

perfect aspect (see verbs)

pejorative (see particles)

permissive (see moods, particles)

pluralizers (see particles)

pluperfect tense (see verbs)

possibility (see particles)

potential (see moods, verbs)

prepositions 164, 165, 166

present tense (see verbs)

presumptive (see particles)

preterit tense (see verbs)

pronouns 118-122

pronouns, first person 118, 119

second person 119

third person 120, 121

quotative (see particles)

relative constructions 122

subjunctive (see moods, particles)

substantive verbs (see copulas)

superlatives 162

supine (see verbs)

syntax 168-174

temporal (see particles, adverbs)

verbal roots 123, 131, 134-136

verbs 123-156

verbs, causative 143

future 125, 135-137

gerund 129, 130, 134, 138, 154, 155, 174, 183

honorific 145-147

imperfect 152

infinitive 128-130, 133

irregular 141, 142

negative, future 132, 133, 141

pluperfect 132, 136

present 131, 136

preterit 131

neutral 172

participle 131, 134

passive 143, 172

perfect 124, 137

pluperfect 125

potential 144

present 123, 134, 135

preterit 124, 134-137

supine 130, 131, 156

vocative (see cases)

written style 182, 183

Index to Grammatical Elements

There follows a list of those elements which Collado describes in his grammar. To a certain degree I have regularized his morphophonological analysis. For example, the preterit permissive form, described by Collado as redomo after a preterit verb, is cross-listed as -ta redomo in order to bring together morphologically similar forms. All forms occurring in the text with the honorific gozaru, etc. are indexed as aru, etc. For example, the element found in aguenande gozaru 'I have not offered' will be indexed under -nande aru. As a general rule in this index items beginning with a hyphen are classified as endings, while the remaining items are particles.

The spelling used in this index is that of the original. Those readers more familiar with the modified Hepburn system of romanization, as reflected in Kenkyūsha's Dictionary, will find the following simplified chart of help. Syllables presented in Kenkyūsha as beginning with the following initial letters will have the corresponding spellings in Collado's grammar:

e = ie

o = vo

k = ca, qi, cu, qe, co

s = sa, xi, su, xe, so

z = za, ji, zu, je, zo

t = ta, chi, tçu, te, to

d = da, gi, zzu, de, do

h = f

y = i

w = v

The citations are numbered according to their location in the translation and are limited to those places where the element is explained or used to demonstrate a grammatical point.

The following abbreviations are used:

abl.

adj.

adv.

advers.

acc.

aff.

alt.

aux.

concl.

cond.

conj.

const.

cop.

dat.

disj.

dist.

dub.

emph.

ablative

adjective

adverb

adversitive

accusative

affirmative

alternative

auxiliary verb

conclusive

conditional

conjunction

construction

copula

dative

disjunctive

distributive

dubitive

emphatic

excl.

fut.

gen.

ger.

hon.

imp.

ind.

inf.

interj.

interr.

intens.

irr.

loc.

n.

neg.

nom.

opt.

p.

exclamatory

future

genitive

gerund

honorific

imperative

indicative

infinitive

interjection

interrogative

intensive

irregular

locative

noun

negative

nominative

optative

particle

part.

perf.

perm.

pot.

plup.

prep.

pres.

pret.

pron.

quot.

subj.

temp.

v.

voc.

writ.

1st

2nd

3rd

participle

perfect

permissive

potential

pluperfect

preposition

present

preterit

pronoun

quotative

subjunctive

temporal

verb

vocative

written style

1st conjugation

2nd conjugation

3rd conjugation

-aba (cond., 2nd) 139

-ai (adj.) 114, 138

-ai (imp.) 135, n. 91

-ai (v. root, 3rd) 135

ai (emph.) 149

ai (hort.) 163

aidani (temp.) 149

-ananda (neg. pret., 2nd) 135

-anu (neg. pres., 2nd) 135

arisama (p. of manner) 154

ari,u (hon. aux.) 145, 146

arui va (conj.) 166

avare (interj.) 168;

(w. opt.) 126, 132

-azu (neg. root, 2nd) 135

-ba (cond.) 139

-ba atte mo (advers.) 153

bacari (intens.) 164

-baia (w. fut.) 125

-ba tote (perm.) 133

baxi (dub.) 163

becarazu (neg. fut., writ.) 183

beqi (fut., writ.) 183

beqi coto (fut. inf., writ.) 183

bexi (fut., writ.) 183

ca (interr.) 156, 163;

(temp.) 159;

(conj.) 167

cai- (intens.) 149

caia (interr.) 163

cana (interj.) 168

canavanu (w. const. showing necessity) 155

cara (nom.) 111;

(abl.) 113;

(w. subj.) 127;

(w. neutral v.) 172;

(w. passive v.) 172

-carananda (neg. pret. adj.) 139

-caranu (neg. pres. adj.) 139

-carazu (neg. adj. root) 139

-catte (neg. adj. ger.) 138

caxi (w. opt.) 126, 132;

(w. subj.) 128

coso (advers.) 150;

(w. ind. ending in -e) 150;

(neg. meaning w. aff. ger.) 154

coto (w. inf.) 129, 133;

(w. pot.) 154

coto gia (p. w. no special meaning) 152

coto mo arózu (w. pot.) 141

-da (see -ta)

-dari (see -tari)

-de (see -te)

de (prep.) 165, 166;

(w. subj.) 127, 153

-demo (see -temo)

dógu (nominalizer) 117

-domo (perm.) 127, 133, 138

domo (p. of necessity) 155

domo (n. pluralizer) 113, 114, 119

-e (ind. w. coso) 150

-e (see -te)

-e (v. root, 1st) 123

-e (imp.) 135, 136, 137

-eba (pres. cond., 1st) 139

-edomo (see redomo)

-ei (adj.) 114, 138

-enu (neg. pres., 1st) 131

-eô (adv.) 115, 156

-eô (fut., 1st) 125

-eôda (pret., 1st) 135

-ezu (neg. v. root, 1st) 131

faia (emph.) 124, 125

faxi- (intens.) 149

fito (w. part.) 131, 134

fodo (w. gen.) 174

furi- (p. of similarity) 150

ga (nom.) 111;

(gen.) 112;

(acc.) 112;

(w. inf.) 129;

(in relative const.) 122

ga (intens. w. pron.) 120

ga (conj.) 148

ga gotoqu (p. of similarity) 149

gana (w. opt.) 126, 132

go (hon.) 182

goto (dist.) 120

goto (nominalizer) 117

gotoqu (p. of similarity) 150, 161

guena (presumptive) 170

ha (interj.) 168

hat (interj.) 168

-i (adj.) 116

-i (imp.) 135, 136

-i (v. root, 2nd) 134

-i (irr. v. root, 1st) 123

ia (excl.) 163

ia (interj.) 168

iai (excl.) 163

iara (interj.) 168;

(w. disj. const.) 167

iare (excl.) 163

-iasui (w. supine) 156

icani (voc.) 113;

(w. plurals) 113

-i caxi (perm.) 129

-ide (neg. ger.) 134

-ide arózu (neg. plup. showing completed action) 137

-ide aru (neg. plup.) 132

-ide atta (neg. plup.) 132

-ide canavanu (ending showing necessity) 155

-idemo (neg. fut. perm.) 133, 154

-ide naranu (ending showing necessity) 155

-ide nochi (neg. ger.) 134

-ide va (ending showing necessity) 155

ie (acc.) 112;

(dat.) 112;

(prep.) 165;

(w. subj.) 127

ie (w. neg. possibility) 153

ie,uru (aux. of neg. possibility) 152

iei (interr.) 168

igo (w. subj.) 127

-ij (adj.) 114, 138

io (intens.) 163

io (imp.) 125

ió (p. of manner) 153

io caxi (w. opt.) 126

ióni (w. inf.) 129;

(w. quot.) 170

iori (nom.) 111;

(abl.) 113;

(w. inf.) 130;

(w. ger.) 174;

(w. comparative const.) 161;

(w. relative const.) 122

iori mo (w. comparative const.) 161

iori mo nao (w. comparative const.) 161

-i tomo (perm. adj.) 138

-iú (adv.) 115, 156

jibun (w. ger.) 130

ma- (v. intensifier) 149

macari- (p. showing modesty) 149

made (prep.) 166

made gia (p. w. no special meaning) 152

madeio (w. perm.) 128, 133;

(p. of confirmation) 152

mai (dist.) 120

mai (neg. fut.) 132

mai coto (neg. fut. inf.) 133

mai coto mo arózu (neg. fut. pot.) 141

maieni (w. neg. v.) 133

mai mono (neg. ger.) 134

mai mono vo (neg. opt.) 132

mai qereba (neg. subj.) 133

mai qeredomo (neg. perm.) 133, 155

mairaxi,u (hon. aux.) 147

mai tomo (neg. fut. perm.) 133

mai tote (neg. ger.) 134

maji (neg. fut., cf. mai) 132

maji qere (neg. cond.) 139

majiqu va (neg. cond.) 140

mamaio (w. perm.) 128, 133

maraxi,u (hon. aux.) 145

mata (conj.) 166

mata va (conj.) 166

me (pejorative, w. pron.) 119, 120

me (p. showing terminus of action) 117

me- (feminine) 114

mega (pejorative, w. pron.) 119, 120

mexi- (hon.) 147

mi- (hon.) 118, 182

mo (conj.) 166;

(dist.) 157;

(advers. w. ger.) 154;

(w. subj.) 128

mono (p. showing performer of action) 117

mono (w. part.) 131, 134;

(w. pot.) 141

mono de arózu (w. cond.) 141

mono vo (w. opt.) 126, 132

motte (emph.) 167

moxi (excl.) 163

moxi va (conj.) 166

-n (pres., writ.) 182

na (concl.) 163

na (neg. imp.) 132, 137

na (adj.) 115, 117, 138

na caxi (neg. opt.) 132

-nagara (ger.) 155

nal coto mo arózu (neg. pot. w. adj.) 141

-naide (neg. ger.) 134

-naide cara (neg. ger.) 134

-naidemo (neg. perf. perm.) 133

nama (p. showing incomplete action) 148

-nanda (neg. pret.) 132

-nanda coto (neg. pret. inf.) 133

-nanda mono (neg. ger.) 134

-nanda mono de arózu (neg. perf. pot.) 141

-nandaraba (neg. perf. cond.) 139

-nanda reba (neg. perf. subj.) 133

-nanda reba tote (neg. perf. perm.) 133

-nanda redomo (neg. perf. subj.) 133

-nanda ritomo (neg. perf. perm.) 133

-nanda to (neg. perf. inf.) 133

-nande aru (neg. plup.) 132

-nande atta (neg. plup.) 132

-nanzzu ró (neg. perf. pot.) 141

-naraba (cond.) 139

naranu (w. const. showing necessity) 155

nari,u (pot. aux. w. adj.) 141

nasare,uru (hon. aux.) 145

na ... so (neg. imp.) 132, 137

-neba (neg. subj.) 132

-neba tote (neg. perm.) 133

-nedomo (neg. perm.) 133

negavacu va (w. opt.) 126, 132

ni (dat.) 112;

(abl.) 113;

(prep.) 164, 165;

(w. ger.) 130, 134;

(w. cond.) 138;

(w. subj.) 127;

(w. supine) 130, 131;

(w. passive v.) 172;

(adv. form of na) 121

ni iotte (prep.) 164;

(w. indefinite pron.) 121

ni itatte (prep.) 165

ni tai xite (prep.) 164

ni tçuite (prep.) 164;

(w. inf.) 130

ni totte (prep.) 165

ni va (w. cond.) 139

ni voite va (prep.) 165;

(w. cond.) 139, 140

ni xitagatte (prep.) 165

ni xitagóte (see ni xitagatte)

ni xite (w. ger.) 130, 138

no (nom.) 111;

(gen.) 112;

(w. quote.) 171;

(to form adj.) 114;

(in relative const.) 122

nó (p. of confirmation) 163

nochi (w. subj.) 127

no gotoqu (prep., dialect) 166

no iori (prep.) 165

-nu (neg. pres., 1st) 131

-nu madeio (neg. pres. perm., 1st) 133

-nu maie ni (w. aff. meaning) 151

-nu mamaio (neg. pres. perm., 1st) 133

o (form of vo after n) 171

-ó (pres., 3rd) 135

-ó (fut., 2nd) 135;

(fut. imp., 2nd) 135

-ó (adv.) 115, 156

-ô (pres., 3rd) 136

-ô (fut., 1st) 125;

(fut. imp., 1st) 125

-ô (adv.) 115, 156

-ô coto (fut. inf., 1st) 129

-ô coto mo arózu (fut. pot., 1st) 141

-óda (pret., 2nd) 134

-ôda (pret., 2nd) 134

-ô fito (fut. part., 1st) 131

-oi (adj.) 114, 138

-oi (v. root, 3rd) 135

-ô mono (fut. part., 1st) 131

-ô ni (ger., 1st) 130

-ô tame (ger., 1st) 130

-óte (adj. ger.) 138

-ôte (adj. ger.) 138

-ô to (fut. inf., 1st) 129

-ô toqi (fut. subj., 1st) 127

-ô tote (ger., 1st) 130

-ó xite (adj. ger.) 138

-ôzu (fut., 2nd) 135

-ôzu (imp., 1st) 125

-ôzu mono vo (perf. opt., 1st) 126

-ôzure (fut., 1st, w. coso) 151

-ôzuru (fut., 2nd) 135

-ôzuru (fut., 1st) 125

-ôzuru coto no saqi ni (plup. subj., 1st) 128

-ôzuru ni (plup. subj., 1st) 128

-ôzuru tocoro ni (plup. subj., 1st) 128

-ôzu tomo (fut. perm., 1st) 128

qere (p. of confirmation) 150

qereba (w. subj.) 133, 138

qeredomo (w. perm.) 133, 139

-qi (adj.) 116

qiri,u (emph. aux.) 149

-qu (adj. root) 138

-qu tomo (adj. perm.) 138

-qu va (adj. cond.) 139

-qu xite (adj. ger.) 138

ra (pluralizer) 113, 114, 118, 119

-raba (cond.) 139

-rare,uru (pot., 1st) 144;

(hon., 1st) 145;

(passive, 1st) 143

-re,uru (pot., w. 2nd & 3rd) 144;

(hon., w. 2nd & 3rd) 145, 147;

(passive, w. 2nd & 3rd) 143

-re (pret. ending after coso, see -tare) 150

-reba (subj., 1st) 127

reba (w. perf. subj.) 132;

(w. cop.) 138

-redomo (perm., 1st) 128

redomo (w. perf. perm.) 133;

(w. inf.) 130;

(w. cop.) 138

-ri (alt.) 152

ritomo (w. perf. perm.) 128, 133

ró (pot.) 140

-ru (see -uru)

sa (nominalizer for adj.) 117

sai (imp.) 126

saie (emph.) 150;

(w. cond.) 140;

(w. neg. const.) 150

sama (prep., dialect) 166

sama (temp.) 154

sama (hon.) 119

saqini (w. neg. v.) 151

saraba (conj.) 167

sareba sareba (conj.) 167

sari nagara (conj.) 167

satemo (interj.) 167

satemo satemo (interj.) 167

sate sate (interj.) 167

-saxe,uru (causative) 143

saxemaxi,u (hon. aux.) 145

-saxerare,uru (hon.) 146

só aru tocoro de (conj.) 167

sóna (p. of presumption) 170

-ta (pret., 1st) 124, 134, 136;

(w. adj. function) 116

-tacatta (pret. of -tai) 153

tachi (pluralizer) 113, 119

-ta coto (pret. inf., 1st) 129

-ta fito (pret. part., 1st) 131

-tagari,u (2nd & 3rd person deciderative) 153

-tai (deciderative) 153;

(w. imp. meaning) 126

-ta madeio (per. perm., 1st) 128

tamai,ó (hon. aux.) 145

-ta mamaio (perf. perm., 1st) 128

tame (prep.) 164;

(w. ger.) 130, 134

tameni (w. supine) 130

-ta mono (pret. part., 1st) 131

-ta mono de arózu (perf. pot., 1st) 141

-taraba (perf. cond., 1st) 139

-taraba iocaró mono va (perf. opt., 1st) 126

-tare (pret. ending w. coso) 150

-ta reba (perf. subj., 1st) 127

-ta reba tote (perf. perm., 1st) 128

-ta redomo (perf. perm., 1st) 128

-tari (pret. writ.) 183

-tari (alt.) 152

-ta ritomo (perf. perm., 1st) 128

-taró ni va (perf. cond., 1st) 139

-taró va (perf. opt.) 126

-tarózu (plup., 1st) 125

tate matçuri,u (humble aux.) 147

-ta to (pret. inf., 1st) 129

tatoi (w. perm.) 128

-tçu (alt.) 152

tçui- (intens.) 148

-tçu ró (perf. pot., 1st) 140, 151

-te (ger.) 129, 130, 155, 183;

(inf.) 129

-te (part.) 131

-te aranu (neg. pret., completed action) 137

-te aró (fut., completed action) 137

-te aró ni va iocaró mono vo (perf. opt.) 126

-te arózu (perf.) 124, 137

-te atta (perf.) 124, 137;

(w. perf. subj.) 127

-te atta reba (plup. subj.) 127

-te cara (plup. subj.) 127

-te coso (w. neg. meaning) 154

tei (p. of manner) 154

-te igo (plup. subj.) 127

-te mo (subj.) 128;

(w. advers.) 154

-te nochi (plup. subj.) 127

to (gen.) 112

to (conj.) 166

to (w. inf.) 129, 133

to (quot.) 168;

(w. adv. of sound) 163

tocacu (disj.) 167

tocoro (w. subj.) 127;

(p. of completed action) 151

tocoro gia (p. w. no special meaning) 151

tocoro no (w. relative const.) 122

-tomo (w. perm.) 128, 133, 138, 150

to mo (quot.) 170

-tó mo nai (neg. of -tai) 153

toqi (w. subj.) 127;

(w. pret. imperfect) 152

tori- (intens.) 149

tote (w. perm.) 128, 133;

(w. ger.) 134

to tomo ni (prep.) 165

to xite (w. ger.) 130

-tta (pret., 2nd) 134

-u (pres., 2nd) 134

-ú (adv.) 115, 156

-ú (pres., 3rd) 136

uchi- (intens.) 149

-ui (adj.) 115, 138

-ui (v. root, 3rd) 135

uie (prep.) 166

uie iori (prep.) 164

-unda (pret., 2nd) 134

-ureba (pres. cond.) 139

-uru (pres., 1st) 123

-uru fito (pres. part., 1st) 131

-uru iori (pres. inf., 1st) 130

-uru jibun (ger., 1st) 130

-uru madeio (pres. perm., 1st) 128

-uru mamaio (pres. perm., 1st) 128

-uru mo (fut. perm., 1st) 128

-uru mono (pres. part., 1st) 131

-uru ni (ger., 1st) 130

-uru ni tçuite (pres. inf., 1st) 130

-uru tame (ger., 1st) 130

-uru tameni (supine, 1st) 130

-uru tomo (fut. perm., 1st) 128

-uru tote (ger., 1st) 130

-uru vo motte (pres. inf., 1st) 128

va (nom.) 111;

(acc.) 112;

(w. subj.) 127;

(w. inf.) 130;

(w. cond.) 139;

(w. other p.) 114;

(replacing other p.) 114;

(w. const. showing necessity) 155

va (p. of confirmation) 149

-vaba (cond., 3rd) 139

-vananda (neg. pret., 3rd) 136

-vanande aru (neg. pret., 3rd) 136

-vanande atta (neg. pret., 3rd) 136

-vanu (neg. pres., 3rd) 136

-vazu (neg. root, 3rd) 136

vo (acc.) 113;

(w. subj.) 127;

(w. neutral v.) 172;

(becomes o after n) 171

vo- (hon.) 146, 182

vo- (masculine) 114

-vó (fut., 3rd) 136

voba (acc.) 112

voi- (intens.) 149

vo motte (prep.) 165;

(w. inf.) 130

von- (hon.) 118, 182

vôxe- (hon.) 147

-vózu (fut., 3rd) 136

-vózuru (fut., 3rd) 136

-xe,uru (causative) 143

xemaxi,u (hon. aux.) 145

-xerare,uru (hon.) 146

-xi (adj.) 116

xicareba (conj.) 167

xidai (prep.) 165

xite (w. neg. ger.) 131, 134

xu (n. pluralizer) 113

-zaru (neg. pres., dialect) 131

-zatta (neg. pret., dialect) 131

-zatta reba (neg. perf. subj. dialect) 131

zo (interr.) 156, 159, 163;

(temp.) 159;

(dub.) 162;

(intens.) 162

-zu (neg. v. root, 1st) 131

-zũba (neg. cond.) 139

-zumba (see zũba)

-zu tomo (neg. perf. perm., 1st) 133

-zu va (neg. cond.) 139

-zu xite (neg. ger., 1st) 131, 134

-zzu (alt.) 152

-zzu ró (perf. pot.) 140, 151

Notes

[1] Diego Collado, O.P., Niffon no Cotoba no Yô Confesion, etc. (Rome, 1632). For further bibliographic data cf. Johannes Laures, Kirishitan Bunko (Tokyo, 1957). Cf. also Ōtsuka Mitsunobu, Koriyaado zangeroku (Tokyo, 1967), for a Japanese transliteration and concordance. It should be noted that the material in this work had no direct influence upon the concurrently written grammar. The only example in the Ars Grammaticae which might have been borrowed from the Confesion is on p. 23 where we find doco de qiqi marasuru mo, sono sata va mósanu 'although this is heard everywhere, I have heard nothing of it.' which parallels the Confesion, p. 6, l. 18; docu [sic] de qiqi marasuru mo; sono sata ga gozaranu 'one hears about this everywhere; but, it doesn't seem to be so.'

[2] The bibliographical data on these and other works directly related to the study of Collado's Grammar will be found in the section on bibliography which follows.

[3] Other works by Collado have come down to us; cf. a memorial by him published in 1633 (Laures, Kirishitan Bunko, item 411). Such material is, however, only peripherally related to the study of language.

[4] For a brilliantly written biography see Michael Cooper, S.J., Rodrigues the Interpreter: An Early Jesuit in Japan and China (Tokyo, 1974).

[5] The Press of the Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith was founded in 1626 when the Congregation was at the height of its activity. Grammars of the major non-European languages published during this period are:

1628

Syrian

Abraham Ecchell

1630

Ethiopian

V. M. Rearino

1631

Arabic

Thomas Obicini

1632

Japanese

Diego Collado

1636

Coptic

A. Kircher

1637

Arabic

Germano de Silesia

1642

Arabic

P. Guadagnoli

1643

Georgian

F. M. Maggio

1645

Armenian

Clemente Galano

1647

Syrian

J. Acurense

1650

Arabic

Antonio de Aguila

1661

Persian

Ignazio de Jesu

[6] Rodriguez' own work is strongly influenced by the format found in Manuel Alvarez (1526-1582), De Institutione Grammatica, Libri III (Lisbon, 1572). So much a part of the training in the Society of Jesus was this work that an edition was printed in 1594 as one of the earliest products of the Mission Press at Amakusa.

[7] The palatal semi-vowel is represented, as in most the Christian materials, by a number of transcriptional devices such as i, e, h, and palatal consonants; e.g., fiacu, agueô, cha, and xô.

[8] See the translation, p. [82], n. 8.

[9] Collado's and Rodriguez' analyses agree in classifying the ni-dan verbs and suru into one conjunction, the yo-dan verbs into a second, and the ha-gyō of the yo-dan into a third.

[10] It should be recalled that the Ars Grammaticae is numbered by the page and the Arte by the leaf.

[11] See p. 14, under Dos nomes adiectivos, where the initial distinction is drawn between nominal and verbal adjectives.

[12] Rodriguez does not treat the substantive verb in Arte Breve, but refers the reader to his earlier work for its description.

[13] Verbo pessoal as contrasted with verbo substantivo and verbo adjectivo.

[14] Rodriguez defines this term elsewhere (Arte, 56) as the vowels, A, I, V, Ye, Vo, in that order. See also the introduction to the Vocabulario.

[15] This term, not found in the Arte, is applied to the entire complex of "spelling" rules which Rodriguez introduces into his description. While no clear-cut influences can be established, it is generally held by Doi and others that these rules are based upon Kanazukai no chikamichi or some similar work. See Kokugogaku taikei, Vol. 9 (Tokyo, 1964), pp. 69-77.

[16] Latin liquesco, "to become fluid, or melt." Used here as a term to describe the palatal and labial series.

[17] This last phrase is to be understood in the context of the following passages which deal with euphonic change in the absence of a devise, nigori ten, to show voicing.

[18] Rodriguez used Vma regularly in the Arte, but notes the variant Muma on 178v.

[19] Presumably a reference to such variants as Samurô for Saburô.

[20] Liurinho, presumably a treatise such as the Kanazukai no chikamichi, by Ichijō Kanera.

[21] In this passage Rodriguez is suggesting that certain European grammarians, out of ignorance of native grammatical theory, have misinterpreted the formational rules; and that, perhaps for pedogogical convenience, he has retained some of these "unnatural" rules in his description.

[22] Read Taxxi.

[23] Read tatesai. The punctuation Tateyo. Tatei, tatesai, is in all likelihood a typesetter's error for Tateyo, tatei, tatesai.

[24] The conjugational display (27v) lists motomuruni and motomurutocoroni.

[25] Rodriguez is here confusing the usage of the classical particle ran, ramu with the construction te + ara + mu.

[26] In the conjugational charts we find:

motomeô
motometarǒ
motomeôzuru

right brace

toki

[27] The following notes are necessary to correct the printer's errors that occur in this listing:

a. In the perfect conditional of Vabi read bitaraba for bitaraaba.

b. The form Fitobi should in all likelihood read Fotobi 'to be wet.'

c. The forms Fotobi, Fokorobi, and Fusabi are all given present indicatives in bu. There seems to be no reason for the ending appropriate to the classical shūshikei to be used for these particular verbs and the bu is taken as a misprint of buru. The Arte (28) lists these forms as regular.

d. In the perfect conditional of Mochiy read ytaraba for yttaraba.

e. The form Coru should read Cori.

f. It will be noticed in the final segment of this listing, beginning with Y, Rodriguez makes no effort to distinguish among Kami-ichidan, kami-nidan, and the irregular verb Ki 'to come.'

[28] By this single rule Rodriguez brings the two na-hen verbs into the second conjugation.

[29] Read najûda and nijûda.

[30] Although the spelling auoghǒ would contain a redundancy it would agree with such forms as aghuru, coghanu and coghǒ found elsewhere.

[31] This use of the imperative reflects a purely formal solution to the morphological problem.

[32] Read Yôdareba.

[33] This rule, which consciously or unconsciously associates the future and the conditional, is also applied to the third conjugation, while the first conjugation uses the root.

[34] The future is the same as the present.

[35] This spelling of the final root consonant with a c is irregular for verbs. Cf. cakanu just below.

[36] The association of the negative with the future, and by extension with the conditional, suggests a keen awareness of the underlying system, particularly since the Canadzucai rules to which he refers require the formation be made from the present. It should be noted that this rule is significantly more elegant than that which derives the negative from the root.

[37] The ij in the original is the digraph ij, as elsewhere.

[38] Read Redomo.

[39] Majij with the digraph would be more regular.

[40] A photostatic copy of the entire text has been made available by Shima Shōzō, Rodorigesu Nihon daibunten (Tokyo, Bunka Shobō, 1969).

[41] Ōtsuka's comparison of the Spanish manuscript with the printed version of the text suggests that many of the typographical errors found in our text are the result of material being too hastily transcribed from a more correct original while the work was being translated from Latin.

[42] This Reference is to Arte of 1604-8. The Arte Breve, printed in 1620 in Macao, was not available to Collado.

[43] The Dictionarium sive Thesauri Linguae Iaponicae, which was in fact published at the same time.

[44] See the Introduction for the regularized usage of these symbols in the translation. (The transcription of gacuxǒ, and the aiaǔ below, are at variance with the rule for the translation and are here transcribed as printed.)

[45] This convention is not transcribed in the translation (cf. Introduction).

[46] More regularly synaloephy—the contraction of two syllables into one.

[47] The geminates that actually appear in the text are; tt, xx, zz, cq, ij & pp, as well as cc (cch), mm, nn, and ss. Two appear initially mm, as in mma 'horse,' and zz, as in zzuru 'to leave.' The form qq which would be phonetically equivalent to cq is not recorded.

[48] This sequence is not used in the body of the grammar, rather the less phonetically accurate ia, ie, etc. It should be noted that the Dictionarium, which was written contemporaniously, does use y for the semivowel.

[49] For s read g. The Arte (177v) discusses this phenomenon as being characteristic of vowels before d, dz, and g.

[50] Since in fact the accent has been carelessly recorded in the text—in places added in an almost random fashion by either the author, his helpers, or the printer—we have not included its marking in the translation. (Cf. Introduction.)

[51] The Dictionarium has the spelling fibicàxi in one entry and in the only other it is transcribed as above.

[52] Acts, 19:20. Referring to the servant in the parable of the pounds who is condemned for keeping his money "laid away in a napkin."

[53] The text uses reduplicatiuus, with the grammatical meaning of plural singular; e.g., the singular I with the meaning of myself and those around me.

[54] Both the Dictionarium and the Vocabulario have either Nifon or Nippon, but do not record this form. It seems not to be a simple typographical error since the spelling is used in the title of the companion piece to this work, the Confesion, and since the text itself has niffion and it is changed to niffon in the errata. Nifon appears on page 43.

[55] The Arte and the Vocabulario use the forms goran and gorǒ in free variation. Collado here and in the Dictionarium uses what appears to be the less phonetically accurate transcription. The Spanish manuscript has goranjerarei.

[56] May I submit this as a candidate for the most exotic bit of anti-semitism in Christendom.

[57] The text reads funè-de, and apparently Collado is attempting to indicate both accent and nasalization at the same time. He does not continue this practice.

[58] The text has caper silvester 'the wild he-goat' presumably the capreolus capreolus which is similar in appearance to the Japanese deer, cervus sika.

[59] While this rule is operative for caij, it creates difficulties after x. Rodriguez' rule is ij becomes ǔ with the example of ataraxǔ. Collado's rule would create ataraxiú. (Cf. p. 33.)

[60] Neither Collado nor Rodriguez make a clear distinction between the quantitative function of no and the qualitative function of na.

[61] Collado usually make a clear distinction between colloquial and literary forms. He apparently is suggesting that these non-colloquial forms are heard in the spoken language. Here, not only is the style left unexplained, but the translation faciendo bonam consultationem is less than ellucidating. Here the ioqu is in fact adverbial.

[62] From kobu 'to flatter.' An abbreviation of kobita kotoba, and used to indicate refined speech; i.e., that speech containing Chinese borrowings. See Doi Tadao, Kirishitan gogaku no kenkyū (Tokyo, 1942, pp. 67-70). The term is also found in the introduction to the Vocabulario in the expression palauras Cobitas.

[63] The text reads De pronomine secundae personae....

[64] This list, unquestionably derived from the Arte (67v), has been in several ways confounded. The mi is out of order and the second vare is clearly in error. If we put aside the genitive forms from Rodriguez' list, the first four forms should be vare, varera, vatacuxi, and soregaxi. Rodriguez' second set consists of mi, midomo, and midomora. We would suggest that Collado meant to include ura, which is listed by Rodriguez as the genitive form vraga. I offer vatacuxi, soregaxi, vare, varera, mi, midomo, midomora, and ura as the intended list, with the order of mi and varera reversed to accommodate the sentence which follows.

[65] The forms for the second person are derived from the Arte (68). Throughout this section the accent marks are quite erratic. In several places, for example, Collado has sónata and even sónatá.

[66] In the material which follows Collado has brought together items from several sections of the Arte; for the interrogatives see (65-65v), the indefinites (66), and the demonstratives (68).

[67] These reduplicated forms are not derived from Rodriguez' description and are apparently misstatements of the forms care and are which would otherwise be missing.

[68] An abbreviated form of monomósu; cf. Arte (139v).

[69] Collado is here speaking with reference to the normal order in Latin.

[70] The treatment of the verbal system by Collado follows in a general way the Arte (6v-54v). In the material that follows specific references will be made when a comparison of the two works is suggested.

[71] The text has secundae coniugationis. This error, which is repeated throughout the text, is not present in the Spanish manuscript.

[72] The text again has secundae coniugationis.

[73] This list covering the Kami-ichidan and Kami-nidan verbs is derived from a similarly defined sub-group of the first conjugation in the Arte (28). Since the verbs cabi, sabi, and deqi are in no way indicated as extraordinary in Rodriguez' presentation, I have amended the text to include their present tense form.

[74] The text reads for this gloss fucore afficior. The proper word is mucore 'mould,' with the literal translation being 'I am affected by mould.'

[75] The Dictionarium has this verb listed as kami-nidan, xij, uru, and therefore not exceptional.

[76] Cf. Arte (7) where a similar list is presented.

[77] For the source of Collado's description of the future tense cf. Arte (7v).

[78] The text reads secundae coniugationis.

[79] Rodriguez more correctly has this rule as the root plus i or yo; e.g., aguei or agueyo. The form aguei is used by Collado in the construction of the optative below.

[80] This form is correct but does not follow his rule for the formation of the imperative (see note 79).

[81] Rodriguez has baquemono 'evil spirit' and the Spanish manuscript baqemono, rather than banguemono 'soothsayer.'

[82] Extracted from Rodriguez' version of a sentence in the Amakusa edition of Esop's Fables (p. 417). The original reads, Arutoqi Xantho chinsui xite yraruru tocoroye, fitoga qite daicaino vxiuouo fitocuchino nomi tçucusaruru michiga arǒcato tôni,... 'One time when Xantho [Esop's master] was drunk, a man came and asked if there was a way to drink all the waters of the ocean in one swallow....' it is abbreviated by Collado in such a way as to obscure the construction.

[83] Also apparently extracted from the Esopo (p. 477). The original has, ... riǒbǒni tachiuacarete yru tocoroni qitçunega yosocara coreuo mite, futatçuno nacani vocareta fittçu jiuo totte curǒta, 'when they [two lions] had gone their separate ways, the fox, seeing this from afar, took the sheep which had been between the two of them and ate it.' By changing riǒbǒ to nhóbó Collado created a less than satisfactory example.

[84] Modeled on Iyeuo idzuru tocorouo cubiuo quiri votoita 'when he went outside his head was cut off.'

[85] Modeled on Missauo asobasaruru tocoroye vôjei faxe atçumatta 'when mass was being celebrated, many came running and gathered around.'

[86] Apparently modelled after Arte (20v) nantomo voxiare caxi 'whatever you say,' with the imperative formation again confounded.

[87] Rodriguez (25v) specifies the location of this usage as Chūgoku, Bungo, Hakata, and other Ximo districts.

[88] This example, together with so zonze na below, reflects the loss of a distinction between z and j which was taking place during this period.

[89] The text has secundae coniugationis.

[90] The Arte (27) records here aguenedomo, aguenuto mǒxedomo, aguezutomo, aguenebatote, and agueidemo. Neither aguenaidemo nor the participle aguenaide, below, are found in the Arte, though they are attested to elsewhere. Cf. Yuzawa Kōkichirō, Edo kotoba no kenkyū (Tokyo, 1954), p. 626.

[91] This rule, derived from Rodriguez (Arte, 29), is misformulated by Collado. Rodriguez' rule is correct; change the nu of the negative present to i. It is formulated correctly for the third conjugation, below.

[92] Collado's rule clearly confuses the formulation of the present with that of the future. Significantly in the Arte Rodriguez never refers to the future forms of any verb other than his model narai. If Collado had had access to the Arte Breve he would have found (41) the following principal parts for vomoi; vomoi, vomô, vomôta, vomovǒ, vomoye. The only other use in the Ars Grammaticae of this form is on page 62 where Collado has the incorrect form vomovô. The manuscript does not record this form.

[93] Although Collado's transcription permits this rule to yield the appropriate forms, it obscures the fact that the final i of the root is a vowel, while the i of the imperative is a semivowel. Rodriguez' transcription better reflects the phonological facts; naraye, vomoye, and cuye.

[94] This completes Collado's treatment of the third negative conjugation. The two paragraphs which follow are part of his treatment of the substantive verb. There is no section heading for the affirmative substantive verb; and clearly a portion of the text has been deleted. The Spanish manuscript (cf. Ōtsuka's 1957 edition, p. 45) includes a new section which begins by recording the following substantive verb forms; ari:aru, gozari:gozaru, i:iru, and vori:voru.

[95] Collado's presentation of the substantive verbs is obscure. The text reads: Verba verò substantiua sunt, gozaru, gozaranu, voru, uori nai, dea vel gia: deuanai, aru:aranu, vel, gozaranu uoru ùôrinai, & .... The translation attempts to punctuate the list to reflect the contrast between affirmative and negative forms. The main confusion is the apparent effort to contrast voru and vorinai. Voru (glossed by the supplement of the Vocabulario as estar, and used in the Dictionarium as the gloss for existo, etc.) is not used by Rodriguez in the Arte. Vorinai (unglossed in the dictionaries) is clearly defined by Rodriguez as the negative of the polite verb voriaru, which is derived by him from von iri+aru (Arte, 165v). Possibly Collado had intended to contrast voru with voranu and voriaru with vorinai but confounded the two pairs and then repeated his error at the end of the list; or again he may, in the absence of Rodriguez' guidance, have simply misunderstood the matter. Putting the alternative forms aside, the list should read gozaru:gozaranu, vori aru:vori nai, gia:devanai, aru:aranu, and voru:voranu. Collado's treatment is patterned only loosely after the Arte (2v-6v).

[96] Collado seems to be unaware of the irregularity of vonaji.

[97] Collado is following the general rule established on p. 10 for such forms as caij. He might better have followed Rodriguez who would transcribe canaxǔte, as do we.

[98] The missing 'closed o' aside, Collado's transcription of this form with an n is indicative of the clarity with which he perceived the nasalization in this context.

[99] Cf. Arte (18v-19v).

[100] The text reads cú vaau ni voite va, with the errata changing the verb to cuvazu.

[101] This historically inaccurate rule is derived from the Arte (18v).

[102] In the one example of this construction, on page 62, Collado has the form tovazunba.

[103] The original is in the soro style; Iǒjǒni voiteua uquetori mǒsubequ soro.

[104] Cf. Arte (19v).

[105] Here and throughout the section Collado transcribes as ro the potential particle which should correctly be written ró (cf. Arte, 11v). It will be noticed that all but one instance of the 'open o' on p. 35 of the text has been left unmarked.

[106] Collado has derived this list from the Arte (45-47). His terminology is, however, rather misleading. What he classifies as verba irregularia are those which Rodriguez considers deponent, that is verbo defectiuo, with the term verbo irregular being used by Rodriguez for the adjective. Given this misunderstanding Collado begins his list with an explanation of the irregularities of qi,uru. This verb is on Rodriguez' list only because "it lacks certain forms in the affirmative" (45v). Rodriguez has a list of 43 deponent verbs, beginning with tari, from which Collado has selected the first 14 and then a few from the remainder.

[107] In the restricted context of an adjectival; cf. modern arayuru koto.

[108] Cf. Arte (45v) where Rodriguez transcribes vreyeyo.

[109] Loc. cit. Rodriguez presents vreôru as an alternative form for vreô in the present tense and then selects that variant for the infinitive.

[110] Formation (formatio) is to be understood here in the sense of derivation, and diversity (differentia) in the sense of class membership.

[111] The opening paragraphs of this section follow the Arte (68-70 and 96-108v). The list of particles, beginning with maraxi, follows 160-168.

[112] The text, here and in the next sentence, reads secundae coningationis.

[113] The form dojucu is incorrect. It is taken by Ōtsuka to be dōshuku 'a person living in the same house.' The Vocabulario records the item dôjucu 'a young boy who serves a priest.' Dôjucu best fits Collado's translation.

[114] The text again reads secundae coniugationis.

[115] Cf. Arte (160-164) from which this list and the following material have been derived.

[116] Throughout his treatment of the respect language Collado glosses his verb forms in the first person, even though that translation might be inappropriate to any context.

[117] Rodriguez (Arte, 162v) specifies the distribution of vo and go, using gosacu atta as his example of the construction in context of a Chinese vocabulary item. Collado does not refer to this distinction.

[118] The text reads secundae coniugationis.

[119] The text reads secundae coniugationis.

[120] Ōtsuka (1957) suggests maraxi is correct and alters the example. Since the list begins with maraxi, I assume the error to be in the citation.

[121] The material for this section is derived from the Arte (164v-168).

[122] While the material for this section is drawn from various sections of the Arte, the bulk of the particles and their descriptions are derived from Rodriguez' treatment of postpositional (73-77) and adverbial constructions (112v-125).

[123] Rodriguez' list (77v) runs as follows; vchi, voi, faxe, ai, tori, mexi, tçui, and voxi. On the basis of Collado's examples voxi should have been included in his list.

[124] Collado's transcription qinpen is phonemically correct while being phonetically less accurate than Rodriguez' quimpen.

[125] Collado has altered Rodriguez' version from Nippon, even though the Dictionarium glosses consuetudo japonica as Nippon catagui.

[126] Collado, in the Dictionarium and here, prefers mmu to uma.

[127] This particle is not described in the Arte.

[128] Rodriguez (Arte, 116) records Core coso yocarǒzure and states that in this context coso has the same meaning as Queccu and Cayette.

[129] Cf. the Arte (117) where the list is given as Reba, Ni, Tomo, the potential, and Te.

[130] Rodriguez' version runs Iesu Christo fitono vontocoroua. (For Collado's use of reduplicatiuus see note 53.)

[131] As the first example indicates, the zzu variant is not restricted to the negative preterit, but is the form which appears for da in all contexts, as here with the preterit of iomu.

[132] In the absence of other examples it is not possible to determine if Collado assumed the present tense form to be iuru or uru. The correction here follows the spelling used consistently in the Arte.

[133] Both Collado and Rodriguez agree that verbs ending in tai govern the accusative case; cf. Nanigaxiuo yobitai (Arte, 14v).

[134] The text reads secunda persona.

[135] Rodriguez has Vatacuxiua nantomo buchôfôde tofǒ ga gozanai [... buchôfǒde ...].

[136] Rodriguez uses the transcription gorǒjerarei in the example from which this sentence is derived. (The ten other occurrences in the Arte have goran.) The Dictionarium uses only goron, while the Vocabulario lists both goran and goron. The Spanish manuscript has goran.

[137] Rodriguez has mairade canauanu.

[138] The Arte has the plain form mairǒcotode attaredomo.

[139] The Arte has mairumajiqueredomo.

[140] Perhaps an attempt to follow the rule, established in the syntax below, that states the v of the accusative particle is lost after n. If this is the intent, the comma is in error.

[141] Rodriguez treats adverbs in two sections of the Arte; under the parts of speech (73v-77), and under the syntax (113-125). As has been observed in the introduction, there is little consistancy of classification between Rodriguez and Collado in this area of grammatical description.

[142] The interrogatives are derived from the Arte (110v) and are presented in substantially the same order. The adverbial particles which begin with uie are taken from (140-148v) and classified by Rodriguez as posposiçao.

[143] The errata has; page 50, line 10, doco read coco. This would require the doco zo above to read coco zo. It seems that the errata should have read; page 50, line 16, which would have corrected this error. The punctuation is not corrected by the errata.

[144] Rodriguez has the complete version; Fitocuchi futacuchi cǔ cotoua cǔta vchideua nai.

[145] Rodriguez uses vonna for vonago.

[146] The material for this section is derived from the Arte (74v and 76v).

[147] Rodriguez has Ayamari nai vyeua, ...

[148] For the temporal interrogatives cf. Arte (89v-90v) and for the remaining forms 107-107v.

[149] Cf. the Dictionarium under cras.

[150] The Vocabulario has sãnuru and sannuru as the ombin form of the attributive perfective sarinuru.

[151] Cf. Arte (74v).

[152] The Spanish manuscript has iya iya.

[153] Cf. Arte (74v).

[154] Cf. Arte (75, 94v, and 123v-124v).

[155] Cf. Arte (94v) Quixoua ano fito fodono gacuxǒdeua nai.

[156] Cf. Arte (95 and 141).

[157] Cf. Arte (75).

[158] The Dictionarium has a selection of a dozen intensifying adverbs listed under valde.

[159] Cf. Arte (74v, 75, and 76).

[160] Cf. Arte (74, 75, and 75v).

[161] The Dictionarium also has the spelling moxi which suggests that Collado perceived a different vowel quantity than Rodriguez who has mǒxi, as does the Vocabulario.

[162] The Latin particle is nonne, which expects an affirmative answer.

[163] Rodriguez, and consequently Doi (Nihon daibunten, p. 449), have xidai for xisai. The original source is the Esopo no Fabulas where on p. 493 the form is xisai.

[164] While the material for this section has been drawn from various portions of the Arte, Rodriguez handles the bulk of the matters dealt with here on 106v-108v and 140-148v.

[165] The text is not clear at this point. It reads: Tame, significat ni vel erga: v.g. ... where one would expect: Tame vel ni significat erga: v.g. ... Ōtsuka translates this passage as if it were the later, as do I.

[166] Collado has recast into the colloquial a quote from the Shikimoku. Rodriguez records: Mata daiquanni itatteua ichininnomi sadamubequi nari.

[167] The text reads: itatte v.g. totte.... where the v.g. is clearly a misprint of vel.

[168] Cf. Arte (130-137).

[169] This item is the only one in this paragraph which Rodriguez does not list as a casane cotoba on 134v of the Arte. Collado is apparently interpreting this construction as a repetition of two adverbs, as for example coco caxico. If so, the form should be spelled vomoxirô, vocaxiú (if we follow his rule for the formation of adverbs from ij ending adjectives). However, the form which he seems to be recording is more likely the compound adverb which is listed in the Vocabulario as vomoxirovocaxǔ and glossed as contemporizando de boa maneira 'temporizing in a carefree manner.' The spelling that we suggest is derived from the attested lexical item without the application of Collado's formational rules.

[170] Cf. Arte (125-130v).

[171] This interjection, together with hat below, are the only uses of initial h found in the description. Rodriguez transcribes the latter item as at or vat (Arte, 127) which suggests a close relationship between the labial and glottal aspirates.

[172] Rodriguez has Benquei satemo yasaxij yatçubaraya.

[173] Rodriguez has: ... nituaye bǒno saxivorosu. The entire passage would be, 'Benkei, seeing this, thought, "Oh, this isn't very important," and dropped the stick into the garden.' which Rodriguez explains to mean being sorry for not paying sufficient attention to a matter.

[174] The material for this section is derived from various sections in Book II of the Arte.

[175] Matthew, 6:24.

[176] Rodriguez has the spelling touazumba. In transcribing the form Collado failed to follow the rule he established in his treatment of conditional constructions.

[177] The model for this sentence appears to be Arte (62): Ichidan medzuraxij yenoco, que nagǒ, uquino gotoqu xirǒ [sic], me curô, cauo icanimo airaxijuo cureta. If this is the source of Collado's example, he is clearly demonstrating his sensitivity to the nasalization of such items such as nagǒ. The Dictionarium under longus has nagai.

[178] Collado's transcription is unable accurately to express the proper phonological, or morphological, form of shin'i 'indignation.' He would have been well advised to follow Rodriguez' model and transcribe this item as xiny with the specification that consonant plus y indicates a morphological juncture.

[179] Rodriguez has the spelling Quiso, which agrees with the Amakusaban Heike (p. 239), the ultimate source of the sentence. Collado's spelling in the translation is quiuzo. The Spanish manuscript has Kiso.

[180] One might expect the more literal 'I do not believe that it will be finished,' but Collado has credo quod non finietur.

[181] This rule, which might more appropriately have been included with the phonology, is not followed in Collado's description, with the possible exception of p. 48 where the same construction is apparently used.

[182] Collado here demonstrates the absorbitive capacity of Latin as he creates an accusative singular adjective from the past attributive of the verb kobu.

[183] The use of abiru, where one would expect aburu, may be a simple typographical error or evidence that Collado accepted the shift from ni-dan to ichi-dan katsuyō as unworthy of notice. Rodriguez (Arte, 101v) has midzuuo aburu.

[184] This list is derived from the Arte (101v-102v). From abi,uru on, the list is in the same order as that made by Rodriguez. Fanaruru, zzuru, nosquru, noru, vovaru, and mairu are Collado's contributions.

[185] Cf. Arte (101v).

[186] Cf. Arte (100).

[187] Cf. Arte (98).

[188] Cf. Arte (104).

[189] Cf. Arte (64 and 79).

[190] The material presented in this section is gleaned from the exhaustive treatment of the numerical system which makes up the last 20 leaves of Rodriguez' grammar.

[191] This compound does not follow the rule, since cu is not a iomi numeral. See also cu ninai below.

[192] Rodriguez has fitoi or fifitoi (Arte, 228v).

[193] While this form fits the general rule for combining counters and days, Rodriguez (Arte, 228v) has tǒca, which is a misprint for tôca, cf. Doi, Daibunten, p. 818.

[194] Spelled with a tilde, sãguat, as are all the other forms before guat.

[195] For the sǒ and sa allomorph of san cf. Arte (173v).

[196] Rodriguez gives the following equivalents in the monetary system on 217-217v of the Arte: ... ten Rin in one Fun, ten Fun in one Momme, one thousand Momme in one Quamme.

[197] The text is confused at this point. It runs: Ixxacu, unus palmus seu tertia quam Hispania vocant sanjacu. tres, ...

[198] The text has culus 'posterior,' but the errata changes the word to anus. The original seems closer to the Japanese.

[199] The examples here lag one behind the glosses.

[200] Here and elsewhere Collado combines homophonous enumerators which Rodriguez keeps distinct. Cf. Arte (220-223v) for an extensive list of enumerators.

[201] Cf. Arte (159-159v).

[202] This rule, apparently an invention of Collado's, has no precedent in Rodriguez or in linguistic derivation. The n in this construction is the contracted form of the classical mu, the source for what Collado calls the future.

[203] These forms might better have been presented as nari,i and qeri,i to indicate that the sentence-ending forms are nari and qeri.

*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DIEGO COLLADO'S GRAMMAR OF THE JAPANESE LANGUAGE ***

Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will be renamed.

Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™ concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away—you may do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark license, especially commercial redistribution.

START: FULL LICENSE

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE

PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work (or any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at www.gutenberg.org/license.

Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works

1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™ electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property (trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8.

1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic works even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.

1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the United States and you are located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg™ works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg™ name associated with the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when you share it without charge with others.

1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any country other than the United States.

1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must appear prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™ work (any work on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or with which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, copied or distributed:

This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before using this eBook.

1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg™ trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work.

1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg™ License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg™.

1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project Gutenberg™ License.

1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work in a format other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in the official version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website (www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works provided that:

• You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the method you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, but he has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in Section 4, “Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.”

• You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™ License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg™ works.

• You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of receipt of the work.

• You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the “Right of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a Project Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further opportunities to fix the problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.

1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any Defect you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg™

Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org.

Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation

The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit 501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.

The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact

Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation

Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations ($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.

Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg™ electronic works

Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support.

Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition.

Most people start at our website which has the main PG search facility: www.gutenberg.org.

This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™, including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.